Colosseum | History | Construction, inauguration, and Roman renovations

The Colosseum is built of travertine limestone, tuff (volcanic rock), and brick-faced concrete. It could hold an estimated 50,000 to 80,000 spectators at various points in its history, having an average audience of some it was used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles including animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, dramas based on Roman mythology, and briefly mock sea battles. The building ceased to be used for entertainment in the early medieval era. It was later reused for such purposes as housing, workshops, quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry, and a Christian shrine.

Although substantially ruined by earthquakes and stone robbers taking spolia, the Colosseum is still a renowned symbol of Imperial Rome and was listed as one of the New 7 Wonders of the World. It is one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions and has links to the Catholic Church, as each Good Friday the Pope leads a torchlit "Way of the Cross" procession that starts in the area around the Colosseum. The Colosseum is depicted on the Italian version of the 5 euro cent coin.

History –

Construction, inauguration, and Roman renovations –

The site chosen was a flat area on the floor of a low valley between the Caelian, Esquiline and Palatine Hills, through which a canalised stream ran as well as an artificial lake/marsh. By the 2nd century BC the area was densely inhabited. It was devastated by the Great Fire of Rome in 64 AD, following which Nero seized much of the area to add to his personal domain. He built the grandiose Domus Aurea on the site, in front of which he created an artificial lake surrounded by pavilions, gardens and porticoes. The existing Aqua Claudia aqueduct was extended to supply water to the area and the gigantic bronze Colossus of Nero was set up nearby at the entrance to the Domus Aurea.

Although the Colossus was preserved, much of the Domus Aurea was torn down. The lake was filled in and the land reused as the location for the new Flavian Amphitheatre. Gladiatorial schools and other support buildings were constructed nearby within the former grounds of the Domus Aurea. Vespasian's decision to build the Colosseum on the site of Nero's lake can be seen as a populist gesture of returning to the people an area of the city which Nero had appropriated for his own use. In contrast to many other amphitheatres, which were on the outskirts of a city, the Colosseum was constructed in the city centre, in effect, placing it both symbolically and geographically at the heart of Rome.

Construction was funded by the opulent spoils taken from the Jewish Temple after the First Jewish—Roman War in 70 AD led to the Siege of Jerusalem. According to a reconstructed inscription found on the site, "the emperor Vespasian ordered this new amphitheatre to be erected from his general's share of the booty." It is often assumed, as it is with many other Roman projects at the time, that slaves and prisoners of war were brought back to Rome and contributed to the massive workforce needed for the construction of the amphitheater. Along with this free source of unskilled labor, teams of professional Roman builders, engineers, artists, painters and decorators undertook the more specialized tasks necessary for building the Colosseum. The Colosseum was constructed with several different materials: wood, limestone, tuff, tiles, cement, and mortar.

Construction of the Colosseum began under the rule of Vespasian in around 70—72 AD (73—75 AD according to some sources). The Colosseum had been completed up to the third story by the time of Vespasian's death in 79. The top level was finished by his son, Titus, in and the inaugural games were held in 80 or 81 AD. Dio Cassius recounts that over 9,000 wild animals were killed during the inaugural games of the amphitheatre. Commemorative coinage was issued celebrating the inauguration. The building was remodelled further under Vespasian's younger son, the newly designated Emperor Domitian, who constructed the hypogeum, a series of tunnels used to house animals and slaves. He also added a gallery to the top of the Colosseum to increase its seating capacity.

In 217, the Colosseum was badly damaged by a major fire (caused by lightning, according to Dio Cassius ), which destroyed the wooden upper levels of the amphitheatre's interior. It was not fully repaired until about 240 and underwent further repairs in 250 or 252 and again in 320. Honorius banned the practice of gladiator fights in 399 and again in 404. Gladiatorial fights are last mentioned around 435. An inscription records the restoration of various parts of the Colosseum under Theodosius II and Valentinian III (reigned 425—455), possibly to repair damage caused by a major earthquake in 443; more work followed in 484 and 508. The arena continued to be used for contests well into the 6th century. Animal hunts continued until at least 523, when Anicius Maximus celebrated his consulship with some venationes, criticised by King Theodoric the Great for their high cost.

 

Christ the Redeemer statue in Rio de Janeiro | History

This article is about the statue in Rio de Janeiro.

Christ the Redeemer is an Art Deco statue of Jesus in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, created by French-Polish sculptor Paul Landowski and built by Brazilian engineer Heitor da Silva Costa, in collaboration with French engineer Albert Caquot. Romanian sculptor Gheorghe Leonida sculpted the face. Constructed between 1922 and 1931, the statue is 30 metres (98 ft) high, excluding its 8-metre (26 ft) pedestal. The arms stretch 28 metres (92 ft) wide. It is made of reinforced concrete and soapstone. Christ the Redeemer differs considerably from its original design, as the initial plan was a large Christ with a globe in one hand and a cross in the other. Although the project organizers originally accepted the design, it later changed to the statue of today, with the arms spread out wide.

The statue weighs 635 metric tons (625 long, 700 short tons), and is located at the peak of the 700-metre (2,300 ft) Corcovado mountain in the Tijuca National Park overlooking the city of Rio de Janeiro. This statue is the largest Art Deco—style sculpture in the world. A symbol of Christianity around the world, the statue has also become a cultural icon of both Rio de Janeiro and Brazil and was voted one of the New 7 Wonders of the World.

History –

Vincentian priest Pedro Maria Boss first suggested placing a Christian monument on Mount Corcovado in the mid-1850s to honor Princess Isabel, regent of Brazil and the daughter of Emperor Pedro II, but the project was not approved. In 1889, the country became a republic, and owing to the separation of church and state, the proposed statue was dismissed.

The Catholic Circle of Rio made a second proposal for a landmark statue on the mountain in 1920. The group organized an event called Semana do Monumento ("Monument Week") to attract donations and collect signatures to support the building of the statue. The organization was motivated by what they perceived as "Godlessness" in the society. The donations came mostly from Brazilian Catholics. The designs considered for the "Statue of the Christ" included a representation of the Christian cross, a statue of Jesus with a globe in his hands, and a pedestal symbolizing the world. Eventually, the statue of Christ the Redeemer with open arms, a symbol of peace, was chosen.

Local engineer Heitor da Silva Costa and artist Carlos Oswald designed the statue. French sculptor Paul Landowski created the work.

In 1922, Landowski commissioned fellow Parisian Romanian sculptor Gheorghe Leonida, who studied sculpture at the Fine Arts Conservatory in Bucharest and in Italy.

A group of engineers and technicians studied Landowski's submissions, and they felt building the structure out of reinforced concrete (designed by Albert Caquot) instead of steel was more suitable for the cross-shaped statue. The concrete making up the base was supplied from Limhamn, Sweden. The outer layers are soapstone, chosen for its enduring qualities and ease of use.[4] Construction took nine years, from 1922 to 1931 , and cost the equivalent of US$250,000 (equivalent to $4,400,000 in 2024) and the monument opened on October 12, 1931. During the opening ceremony, the statue was to be lit by a battery of floodlights turned on remotely by Italian shortwave radio inventor Guglielmo Marconi, stationed 9,200 kilometres (5,700 mi) away in Rome but because of bad weather, the lights were activated on site.

In October 2006, on the 75th anniversary of the statue's completion, Cardinal Eusebio Oscar Scheid, Archbishop of Rio, consecrated a chapel, named after Brazil's patron saint—Our Lady of the Apparition—under the statue, allowing Catholics to hold baptisms and weddings there.

Lightning struck the statue during a violent thunderstorm on February 10, 2008, causing some damage to the fingers, head and eyebrows. The Rio de Janeiro state government initiated a restoration effort to replace some of the outer soapstone layers and repair the lightning rods on the statue. Lightning damaged it again on January 17, 2014, dislodging a finger on the right hand.

In 2010, a massive restoration of the statue began. Work included cleaning, replacing the mortar and soapstone on the exterior, restoring iron in the internal structure, and waterproofing the monument. Vandals attacked the statue during renovation, spraying paint along the arm. Mayor Eduardo Paes called the act "a crime against the  nation". The culprits later apologized and presented themselves to the police.

In reference to Brazil striker Ronaldo's usual goal celebration of both arms outstretched, the Pirelli tyre company ran a 1998 commercial in which he replaced the statue while in an Inter Milan strip. The commercial was controversial with the Catholic Church. 

The History of Great Wall of China | Ming and Qing eras

The Chinese were already familiar with the techniques of wall-building by the time of the Spring and Autumn period between the 8th and 5th centuries BC. During this time and the subsequent Warring States period, the states of Qin, Wei, Zhao, Qi, Han, Yan, and Zhongshan all constructed extensive fortifications to defend their own borders. Built to withstand the attack of small arms such as swords and spears, these walls were made mostly of stone or by stamping earth and gravel between board frames.

The state of Qin emerged victorious in 221 BC; its ruler, now the First Emperor of a unified China, intended to centralize rule and prevent the resurgence of feudal lords; in doing so, he

ordered the destruction of the sections of the walls that divided his empire among the former states. To position the empire against the Xiongnu people from the north, however, he ordered the building of new walls to connect the remaining fortificationsalong the northern frontier. "Build and move on" was a central  guiding principle in constructing the wall, implying that the Chinese were not erecting a permanently fixed border.

Transporting the large quantity of materials required for construction was difficult, so builders always tried to use local resources; stone was used in montane areas, while rammed earth was used while building in the plains. There are no surviving historical records indicating the exact length and course of the Qin walls; most of the ancient walls have eroded away over the centuries, and very few sections remain today. Later, the Han, the Northern dynasties and the Sui all repaired, rebuilt, or expanded sections of the Great Wall at great cost to defend themselves against northern invaders. The Tang and Song dynasties did not undertake any significant effort in the region. Dynasties founded by non-Han ethnic groups also built border walls: the Xianbei-ruled Northern Wei, the Khitan-ruled Liao, Jurchen-led Jin and the Tangut-established Western Xia, who ruled vast territories over Northern China throughout centuries, all constructed defensive walls, albeit being further north—reaching into the environs of present-day Mongolia—than Han-built fortifications.

Ming and Qing eras –

Main article: Ming Great Wall :

The Ming dynasty made substantial contributions to the Great Wall, following their defeat to the Oirats in the Battle of Tumu. This defeat had come in the context of protracted conflict with Mongol tribes; a new strategy for defense was thus realized by constructing walls along the northern border of China. Acknowledging the Mongol control established in the Ordos Desert, the wall followed the desert's southern edge, instead of incorporating the bend of the Yellow River.

Unlike the earlier fortifications, the Ming construction was stronger and more elaborate, due to the use of bricks and stone instead of rammed earth. Up to 25,000 watchtowers are estimated to have been constructed on the wall. As Mongol raids continued periodically over the years, the Ming devoted considerable resources to repair and reinforce the walls; sections near the Ming capital of Beijing were especially strong. Under general Qi Jiguang's supervision, 1 ,200 watchtowers from Shanhaiguan Pass to Changping were constructed between 1567 and 1570, and sections of the ram-earth wall were faced with bricks.

During the mid—15th century, the Ming also built a so-called "Liaodong Wall". It enclosed the agricultural heartland of the Liaodong province, protecting it against potential incursions by Jurchen-Mongol Oriyanghan from the northwest and the Jianzhou Jurchens from the north. While stones and tiles were sometimes used here, it was otherwise simply an earth dike with moats on both sides.

Towards the end of the Ming, the Great Wall helped defend the empire against the Manchu invasions that began around 1600. Even after the loss of all of Liaodong, the Ming army held the heavily fortified Shanhai Pass, preventing the Manchus from conquering the Chinese heartland. The Manchus were finally able to cross the Great Wall in 1644, after Beijing had already fallen to Li Zicheng's short-lived Shun dynasty. Before this time, the Manchus had crossed the Great Wall multiple times to raid, but this time it was for conquest. The gates at Shanhai Pass were opened on May 25 by the commanding Ming general, Wu Sangui, who formed an alliance with the Manchus, hoping to use the Manchus to expel the rebels from Beijing. The Manchus quickly seized Beijing instead, and eventually defeated both the Shun dynasty and the remaining Ming resistance, consolidating the rule of the Qing dynasty over all of China proper.

Under Qing rule and the annexation of Mongolia into the empire, China's borders extended beyond the Great Wall; work on it for the purpose of border defense was thus discontinued. Construction nevertheless persisted with projects like the Willow Palisade; following a line similar to that of the Liaodong Wall of the Ming, it was meant to prevent Han Chinese migration into Manchuria.

 

Preventing Obesity | Strategies for a Healthy Weight

 Let's be clear: To make strides in reversing the obesity epi&mic, changes must come from all parts of society—from governments and schools, businesses and non-profit organizations,neighborhoods and communities. Effective policies and programs are essential in ensuring that children and adults live, work, and play in environments that are conducive to healthy eating and offer opportunities for physical activity.

Personal preferences and knowledge or beliefs can influence lifestyle choices, but there are so many complex factors that strongly impact individual behaviors. This page covers individual-and family-level strategies associated with maintaining a healthy weight, with the acknowledgement that we are too often fighting against a flood of accessible unhealthy options, persuasive advertising, and policies that make it far from easy.

Strategies for a Healthy Weight –

Preventing weight gain over the years may not be possible for everyone, but there are strategies to help reduce the amount of weight change by increasing awareness of modifiable risk factors and working toward healthy lifestyle behaviors. Most of these strategies are covered in-depth throughout the website, so keep an eye out for links to more information below.

Eat well –

Nutritional quality matters when maintaining a healthy weight, and a healthy pattern is crucial to good health. Additionally, how we eat matters too.

Eat and drink these:

Vegetables, fresh or frozen (choose a rainbow!)

Whole fruits, fresh or unsweetened frozen (but minimize fruit juices)

Healthy protein sources, including plant protein (tofu, tempeh, legumes, nuts, seeds) and lean animal protein (seafood and skinless poultry)

Whole grains like whole wheat, steel-cut oats, intact whole grains like brown rice, bulgur, barley, amaranth, quinoa

Healthy fats, including liquid plant oils such as olive, avocado, and sunflower oil

Water, tea, coffee (limit excess sweeteners and creams added to these beverages)

Eat and drink less of these:

Sugar-sweetened beverages (soda, fruit drinks, high-sugar sports drinks) and foods with added sugar

Fruit juices

Refined grains (white bread, white rice, white pasta)

Red meat (beef, pork, lamb) and processed red meats (salami, ham, bacon, sausage)

Low-nutrient ultra-processed foods and snacks, and other highly processed foods, such as fast food

How we eat and how much:

Age, gender, body size, and level of physical activity dictate how much food you need each day to achieve and maintain a healthy weight. With extra-large restaurant portions, easy access to low-cost ultra-processed snacks and fast food, it's far too easy to overeat. Try the tips below to avoid overeating.

Eat breakfast. While it seems like skipping a meal is an easy way to cut calories and is often promoted with certain intermittent fasting regimens, skipping breakfast entirely can backfire when hunger comes raging back mid-day, often leading to overeating. Breakfast doesn't have to mean a big bowl of cereal, eggs, and toast. It may mean a slice of whole grain toast with nut butter, a hardboiled egg or leftover piece of chicken and an orange, or a low-sugar protein smoothie blended with plain Greek yogurt, calcium-fortified plant milk, and fresh fruit.

Choose small portions and eat slowly. Slowing down while eating and using smaller bowls or plates can help avoid overeating by giving the brain time to tell the stomach when it's had enough food. Limiting distractions like turning off screens from phones and computers can also help us to increase our focus and enjoyment on food.

Eat at home. Fast food, restaurant meals, and other foods prepared away from home tend to have larger portions and richer ingredients. When cooking meals at home, you have more control what you put into them. If you feel too busy to cook, try meal prep strategies.

Eat mindfully. Taking time to think about why you're eating and if you're truly hungry can help you to make better food choices. When you do eat, focus all of your senses on the food with sight, smell, touch, and taste so that you can fully enjoy what you are eating. Learn mpre about mindful eating.

Chenab Rail Bridge In India | Background and planning | Design

The Chenab Rail Bridge is a railway bridge over the Chenab River in Reasi district of the Indian union territory of Jammu and Kashmir. It is a steel and concrete bridge spanning 1 ,315 m (4,314 ft) across the river gorge. The structure consists of an approach bridge which is 530 m (1 , 740 ft) long and a 785 m (2,575 ft) long deck arch bridge. With a deck height of 359 m (1,178 ft) from the river bed, the arch bridge is the highest rail bridge and arch bridge in the world. It is located between Kauri and Bakkal rail stations on the Jammu— Baramulla line.

The Jammu—Baramulla railway project was initiated with the laying of its foundation stone in 1983, but construction commenced only in the mid-1990s after funds were allocated. The project progressed in phases: the Jammu Udhampur section opened in April 2005, and the Udhampur—Katra section opened in July 2014, with the line set to extend beyond Srinagar to connect with the Baramulla—Banihal section that was completed between 2008  and 2013.

The bridge was constructed at a cost of < 14.86 billion (US$180 million). The project was overseen by Konkan Railway Corporation of the Indian Railways. The construction work started in 2017, and the base supports were completed in November 2017 with the arch constructed by April 2021. The bridge was fully completed in August 2022, and the first trial runs were conducted in June  2024.The bridge was inaugurated for rail traffic on 6 June 2025.

Background and planning –

In the late 1970s, the Government of India planned to establish a railway line to connect Jammu with the Kashmir valley. The line would connect Kashmir with the rest of the Indian railway network and aid in the economic activity of the region. It would also serve as a strategic link to the Kashmir region all round the year as the road is often cut off by snowfall during winters. Though the foundation stone for the project was laid in 1983, constructed started only The Jammu when the funds were allocated only in the mid 1990s. The Jammu-Udhampur section was opened in April 2005. Subsequently, a railway line was established between Baramulla and Banihal in Kashmir in phases from 2008 to 2013, and the planned Jammu-Baramulla line would extend beyond Srinagar to connect to the new line. The section between Udhampur and Katra was opened for traffic in July 2014.

Meanwhile, a survey was conducted in 1997 to study the feasibility for extending the railway line from Udhampur to Srinagar in the valley. The line would have to pass through the Pir Panjal range of the Himalayas, which necessitated multiple tunnels and bridges. The line between Katra and Srinagar necessitated a crossing of a deep gorge formed by the Chenab River. A high altitude rail bridge was approved to cross the river between Kauri and Bakkal, about 23 km (14 mi) north of Katra.

Design –

The Indian Railways assigned the supervision of the bridge construction project to Konkan Railway Corporation on behalf of Northern Railways. The bridge was declared a national project due to its national importance in connecting Kashmir to the existing lines of Indian Railways. Konkan railway invited tenders for the project in November 2003. The area was located in a major seismic zone (zone V) with a fractured geology, and in a conflict prone zone. WSP Finland served as the main designer of the bridge, with Leonhardt, Andrä und Partner designing the bridge arches, and Vienna Consulting Engineers aiding in the design of the pylons. The Defence Research & Development Organization aided in developing the blast proofing of the bridge, and the Indian Institute of Science helped with the study of the protection of the foundation of the bridge.

A 1,315 m (4,314 ft) was planned at a cost of æ14.86 billion (US$180 million). The main deck of the bridge was planned at a height of 359 m (1 , 178 ft) above the river bed, making it the highest rail bridge and arch bridge in the world. The bridge consists of two parts— an approach bridge which is 530 m (1 , 740 ft) long and the 785 m (2,575 ft) long deck arch bridge. The arch bridge consists of a two-ribbed arch design and prefabricated steel boxes filled with concrete used in chords of the trusses. The bridge consists of 17 spans, with the main span measuring 467 m (1 ,532 ft) linearly. The spans are supported by steel piers, the highest of which measures 133.7 m (439 The super structure consists of 161 girder plates each of 8 m (26 ft) length and 8 mm (0.31 in) The bridge is about 13.5 m (44 ft) wide, and can accommodate double railway tracks with a separation of 1.2 m (3 ft 11 in) in the center. The main bridge arch structure weighs 10,619 tonnes and is supported by two cable-attached pylons measuring 130 m (430 ft) and 100 m (330 ft) respectively.

The design and construction is compliant with various national and global standards and codes, including Indian Standards,Indian Railway Standards, Indian Road Congress, British Standards, and International Union of Railways. The bridge is designed to have a life of 120 years and is designated to handle rail speeds of up to 100 km/h (62 mph). The bridge was designed to withstand earthquakes up to a magnitude of eight on the Richter scale, high-intensity blasts equivalent to about 40 tonnes of TN T, temperatures up to -20 oc (-4 OF) and wind speeds of up to 266 km/h (165 mph).

 

Jim Corbett National Park | History | Geography | Climate

Jim Corbett National Park is a national park in India located in the Nainital district of Uttarakhand state. The first national park in India, it was established in 1936 during the British Raj and named Hailey National Park after William Malcolm Hailey, a governor of the United Provinces in which it was then located. In 1956, nearly a decade after India's independence, it was renamed Corbett National Park after the hunter and naturalist Jim Corbett, who had played a leading role in its establishment and had died the year before. The park was the first to come under the Project Tiger initiative.

Corbett National Park comprises 520.8 km2 (201.1 sq mi) area of hills, riverine belts, marshy depressions, grasslands and a large lake. The elevation ranges from 1,300 to 4,000 ft (400 to 1 ,220 m). Winter nights are cold but the days are bright and sunny. It rains from July to September. The park has sub-Himalayan belt geographical and ecological characteristics. Dense moist deciduous forest mainly consists of Shorea robusta (the sal tree), haldu, peepal, rohini and mango trees. Forest covers almost 73 per cent of the park, while 10 per cent of the area consists of grasslands. It houses around 110 tree species, 50 species of mammals, 580 bird species and 25 reptile species.

An ecotourism destination, the park contains 617 different species of plants and a diverse variety of fauna. The increase in tourist activities, among other problems, continues to present a serious challenge to the park's ecological balance.

History –

Some areas of the park were formerly part of the princely state of Tehri Garhwal. The forests were cleared by the Uttarakhand Forest Department to make the area less vulnerable to Rohilla invaders. The Raja of Tehri formally ceded a part of his princely state to the East India Company in return for their assistance in ousting the Gurkhas from his domain. The Buksas—a tribe from the Terai—settled on the land and began growing crops, but in the early 1860s they were evicted with the advent of British rule.

Efforts to save the forests of the region began in the 19th century under Major Ramsay, the British officer who was in-charge of the area during those times. The first step in the protection of the area began in 1868 when the British forest department established control over the land and prohibited cultivation and the operation of cattle stations. In 1879 these forests were constituted into a reserve forest where restricted felling was permitted.

In the early 1900s, several Britishers, including E. R. Stevans and E. A. Smythies, suggested the setting up of a national park on this soil. The British administration considered the possibility of creating a game reserve there in 1907. It was only in the 1930s that the process of demarcation for such an area got underway. A reserve area known as Hailey National Park covering 323.75 km2 (125.00 sq mi) was created in 1936, when Sir Malcolm Hailey was the Governor of United Provinces, and Asia's first national park came into existence. Hunting was not allowed in the reserve, only timber cutting for domestic purposes was permitted. Soon after the establishment of the reserve, rules prohibiting the killing and capture of mammals, reptiles and birds within its boundaries were passed.

The reserve was renamed Ramganga National Park in 1954—1955 and was again renamed in 1955—1956 to Corbett National Park after author and naturalist Jim Corbett. The park fared well during the 1930s under an elected administration. But during the Second World War, it suffered from excessive poaching and timber cutting. Over time, the area in the reserve was increased to 797.72 km2 (308.00 sq mi) were added in 1991 as a buffer zone to the Corbett Tiger Reserve. The 1991 addition included the entire Kalagarh forest division, assimilating the 301.18 km2 (116.29 sq mi) area of Sonanadi Wildlife Sanctuary as a part of the Kalagarh division. It was chosen in 1974 as the location for launching the Project Tiger wildlife conservation project. The reserve is administered from its headquarters in the Nainital district.

Corbett National Park is one of the thirteen protected areas covered by the World Wide Fund For Nature under their Terai Arc Landscape Program.The program aims to protect three of the five terrestrial flagship species, the tiger, the Asian elephant and the Indian rhinoceros by restoring wildlife corridors to link 13 protected areas of Nepal and India and to enable wildlife migration.

Geography –

Jim Corbett National Park is located partly along Doon Valley between the Lesser Himalaya in the north and the Siwalik Hills in the south; it has a sub-Himalayan belt structure. The upper tertiary rocks are exposed towards the base of the Shiwalik range and hard sandstone units form broad ridges. Characteristic longitudinal valleys, geographically termed Doons, or Duns can be seen formed along the narrow tectonic zones between lineaments. The elevation of the region ranges between 360 m (1 , 180 ft) and 1,040 m (3,410 ft ) It has numerous ravines, ridges, minor streams and small plateaus with varying aspects and degrees of slope. The park encompasses the Pat/i Dun valley formed by the river Ramganga. Its present area is 1,288.31 km2 (497.42 sq mi) including a 822 km2 (317 sq mi) core zone and 466.31 km2 (180.04 sq mi) of buffer area.

Climate –

The weather in the park is temperate compared to most other protected areas of India. The temperature may vary from 5 oc (41 OF) to 30 oc (86 OF) during the winter and some mornings are foggy. Summer temperatures normally do not rise above 40 oc (104 OF). Rainfall ranges from light during the winter to heavy during the monsoonal summer. 

Indira Gandhi Memorial Tulip Garden | History | Tulip festival

Indira Gandhi Memorial Tulip garden, previously Model Floriculture Center, is a tulip garden in Srinagar, in the Indian union territory of Jammu and Kashmir. It is the largest tulip garden in Asia spread over an area of about 30 ha (74 acres). It is situated at the base of the Zabarwan range, built on a sloping ground in a terraced fashion consisting of seven terraces with an overview of the Dal Lake. The tulip garden is home to around 75 varieties of tulips. Besides tulips, there are 46 varieties of flowers, including hyacinths, daffodils and ranunculus which were also brought from Holland.

History –

The garden was opened in 2007 with the aim to boost floriculture and tourism in the Kashmir Valley. It was formerly known as Siraj Bagh. About 1.75 million tulip bulbs, all in multiple colours, were brought Keukenhof tulip gardens of Amsterdam.

Tulip festival –

The Tulip festival is an annual Spring festival to increase tourism by the Government of Jammu and Kashmir. The festival showcases a variety of flowers in the garden.

In 2023, the garden received a record number of visitors. Over a span of one month, between March and April 2023, the garden was visited by 365,000 tourists, including 3,000 foreign tourists.

 

Tipu Sultan and his war | Early military service

Tipu Sultan (Urdu: [ti:pu: sulla:n], Sultan Fateh Ali Sahab Tipu; 1 December 1751 —4 May 1799) commonly referred to as Sher-e-Mysore or "Tiger of was a ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore based in South India. He Mysore", was a ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore based in South India. He was a pioneer of rocket artillery. He expanded the iron-cased Mysorean rockets and commissioned the military manual Fathul Mujahidin. The economyof Mysore reached a zenith during his reign. He deployed rockets against advances of British forces and their allies during the Anglo-Mysore Wars, including the Battle of Pollilur and Siege of Srirangapatna.

Tipu Sultan and his father Hyder Ali used their French-trained army in alliance with the French in their struggle with the British, and in Mysore's struggles with other surrounding powers: against the Marathas, Sira, and rulers of Malabar, Kodagu, Bednore, Carnatic, and Travancore. Tipu became the ruler of Mysore upon his father's death from cancer in 1782 during the Second Anglo- Mysore War. He negotiated with the British in 1784 with the Treaty of Mangalore which ended the war in status quo ante bellum.

Tipu's conflicts with his neighbours included the Maratha—Mysore War, which ended with the signing of the Treaty of Gajendragad. Tipu remained an enemy of the British East India Company. He initiated an attack on British-allied Travancore in 1789. In the Third Anglo-Mysore War, he was forced into the Treaty of Seringapatam, losing a number of previously conquered territories, including Malabar and Mangalore. In the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War, a combined force of British East India Company troops supported by the Marathas and the Nizam of Hyderabad defeated Tipu. He was killed on 4 May 1799 while defending his stronghold of Seringapatam.

Tipu also introduced administrative innovations during his rule, including a new coinage system and calendar, and a new land revenue system, which initiated the growth of the Mysore silk industry. He is known for his patronage to Channapatna toys.

Childhood –

Tipu Sultan was born in Devanahalli, in present-day Bangalore Rural district, about 33 km (21 mi) north of Bangalore on 1 December 1751. He was named "Tipu Sultan" after the saint Tipu Mastan Aulia of Arcot. Being illiterate, Hyder was very particular in giving his eldest son a prince's education and a very early exposure to military and political affairs. At age of 17 onwards Tipu was given charge of diplomatic and military missions and supported his father Hyder in his wars.

Tipu's father, Hyder Ali, was a military officer in service to the Kingdom of Mysore who had become the de facto ruler of Mysore in 1761 while his mother Fatima Fakhr-un-Nisa was the daughter of Mir Muin-ud-Din, the governor of the fort of Kadapa. Hyder Ali appointed able teachers to give Tipu an early education in subjects like Urdu, Persian, Arabic, Kannada, Beary, Quran, Islamic jurisprudence, riding, shooting and fencing.

Language –

Tipu Sultan's mother tongue was Urdu. The French noted that "Their language is Moorish[Urdu] but they also speak Persian.' Moors at the time was a European designation for Urdu: "l have a deep knowledge of the common tongue of India, called Moors by the English, and Ourdouzebain  bythe natives of the land.

Early military service –

Early Conflicts-

Tipu Sultan was instructed in military tactics by French officers in the employment of his father. At age 15, he accompanied his father against the British in the First Mysore War in 1766. He commanded a corps of cavalry in the invasion of Carnatic in 1767 at age 16. He also took part in the First Anglo-Maratha War of 1775-1779.

Alexander Beatson, who published a volume on the Fourth Mysore War entitled View of the Origin and Conduct of the War with Tippoo Sultaun, described Tipu Sultan as follows: "His stature was about five feet eight inches; he had a short neck, square shoulders, and was rather corpulent: his limbs were small, particularly his feet and hands; he had large full eyes, small arched eyebrows, and an aquiline nose; his complexion was fair, and the general expression of his countenance, not void of dignity".

Second Anglo-Mysore War-

In 1779, the British captured the French-controlled port of Mahe which Tipu had placed under his protection, providing some troops for its defence. In response, Hyder launched an invasion of the Carnatic, with the aim of driving the British out of Madras. During this campaign in September 1780, Tipu Sultan was dispatched by Hyder Ali with 10,000 men and 18 guns to intercept Colonel William Baillie who was on his way to join Sir Hector Munro. In the Battle of Pollilur, Tipu defeated Baillie. Out of 360 Europeans, about 200 were captured alive, and the sepoys, who were about 3800 men, suffered very high casualties. Munro was moving south with a separate force to join Baillie, but on hearing the news of the defeat he retreated to Madras, abandoning his artillery in a water tank at Kanchipuram.

Tipu Sultan defeated Colonel Braithwaite at Annagudi near Tanjore on 18 February 1782. Braithwaite's forces, consisting of 100 Europeans, 300 cavalry, 1400 sepoys and 10 field pieces, was the standard size of the colonial armies. Tipu Sultan seized all guns and took the detachment prisoner. In December 1781 Tipu Sultan seized Chittur from the British. Tipu Sultan had gained sufficient military experience by the time Hyder Ali died on Friday, 6 December 1782. Some historians put Hyder Ali's death at 2 or 3 days later or before due to the Hijri date being 1 Muharram, 1197 as per some records in Persian (which can result in a difference of 1 to 3 days due to the Lunar Calendar). He became the ruler of Mysore on Sunday, 22 December 1782 (the

inscriptions in some of Tipu's regalia show it as 20 Muharram, 1197 Hijri Sunday) in a simple coronation ceremony. He subsequently worked on to check the advances of the British by making alliances with the Marathas and the Mughals. The Second Mysore War came to an end with the 1784 Treaty of Mangalore. 

Vitamins and Minerals | Importance of Vitamins, Minerals and Multivitamins

Vitamins and minerals are micronutrients required by the body to carry out a range of normal functions. However, these micronutrients are not produced in our bodies and must be derived from the food we eat. Vitamins are organic substances that are generally classified as either fat soluble or water soluble. Fat-soluble vitamins (vitamin A, vitamin D, vitamin E, and vitamin K) dissolve in fat and tend to accumulate in the body. Water-soluble vitamins (vitamin C and the B-complex vitamins, such as vitamin B6, vitamin B12, and folate) must dissolve in water before they can be absorbed by the body, and therefore cannot be stored. Any water-soluble vitamins unused by the body is primarily lost through urine.

Minerals are inorganic elements present in soil and water, which are absorbed by plants or consumed by animals. While you're likely familiar with calcium, s04ium, and po!assium, there is a range of other minerals, including trace minerals (e.g. _gopper, !04ine, and zinc) needed in very small amounts.

In the U.S., the National Academy of Medicine (formerly the Institute of Medicine) develops nutrient reference values called the Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs) for vitamins and minerals. [1] These are intended as a guide for good nutrition and as a scientific basis for the development of food guidelines in both the U.S. and Canada. The DRIS are specific to age, gender, and life stages, and cover more than 40 nutrient substances. The guidelines are based on available reports of deficiency and toxicity of each nutrient. Learn more about vitamins and minerals and their recommended intakes in the table below.

What About Multivitamins?

A diet that includes plenty of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, good protein packages, and healthful fats should provide most of the nutrients needed for good health. But not everyone manages to eat a healthful diet. Multivitamins can play an important role when nutritional requirements are not met through diet alone. Learn more about vitamin supplementation.

Did You Know?

Vitamins and their precise requirements have been controversial since their discovery in the late 1800s and early 1900s. It was the combined efforts of epidemiologists, physicians, chemists, and physiologists that led to our modern day understanding of vitamins and minerals. After years of observation, experiments, and trial and error, they were able to distinguish that some diseases were not caused by infections or toxins—a common belief at the time—but by vitamin deficiencies. [2] Chemists worked to identify a vitamin's chemical structure so it could be replicated. Soon after, researchers determined specific amounts of vitamins needed to avoid diseases of deficiency.

In 1912, biochemist Casimir Funk was the first to coin the term "vitamin" in a research publication that was accepted by the medical community, derived from "vita" meaning life, and "amine" referring to a nitrogenous substance essential for life. [3] Funk is considered the father of vitamin therapy, as he identified nutritional components that were missing in diseases of deficiency like scurvy (too little vitamin C), beri-beri (too little vitamin Bl), pellagra (too little vitamin B3), and rickets (too little vitamin D). The discovery of all vitamins occurred by 1948.

Vitamins were obtained only from food until the 1930s when commercially made supplements of certain vitamins became available. The U.S government also began fortifying foods with specific nutrients to prevent deficiencies common at the time, such as adding iodine to salt to prevent goiter, and adding folic acid to grain products to reduce birth defects during pregnancy. In the 1950s, most vitamins and multivitamins were available for sale to the general public to prevent deficiencies, some receiving a good amount of marketing in popular magazines such as promoting cod liver oil containing vitamin D as bottled sunshine. 

Indian Rebellion of 1857 | East India Company's expansion in India

The Indian Rebellion of 1857 was a major uprising in India in 1857—58 against the rule of the British East India Company, which functioned as a sovereign power on behalf of the British Crown. The rebellion began on 10 May 1857 in the form of a mutiny of sepoys of the company's army in the garrison town of Meerut, 40 miles (64 km) northeast of Delhi. It then erupted into other mutinies and civilian rebellions chiefly in the upper Gangetic plain and central India though incidents of revolt also occurred farther north and east. The rebellion posed a military threat to British power in that region, and was contained only with the rebels' defeat in Gwalior on 20 June 1858. On 1 November 1858, the British granted amnesty to all rebels not involved in murder, though they did not declare the hostilities to have formally ended until 8 July 1859.

The name of the revolt is contested, and it is variously described as the Sepoy Mutiny, the Indian Mutiny, the Great Rebellion, the Revolt of 1857, the Indian Insurrection, and the First War of Independence.

The Indian rebellion was fed by resentments born of diverse perceptions, including invasive British-style social reforms, harsh land taxes, summary treatment of some rich landowners and princes,and scepticism about  British claims that their rule offered material improvement to the Indian economy. Many Indians rose against the British; however, many also fought for the British, and the majority remained seemingly compliant to British Violence, which sometimes betrayed exceptional cruelty, was inflicted on both sides: on British officers and  civilians, including women and children, by the rebels, and on the rebels and their supporters, including sometimes entire villages, by British reprisals; the cities of Delhi and Lucknow were laid waste in the fighting and the British retaliation.

After the outbreak of the mutiny in Meerut, the rebels quickly reached Delhi, whose 81 -year-old Mughal ruler, Bahadur Shah Zafar, was declared the Emperor of Hindustan. Soon, the rebels had captured large tracts of the North-Western Provinces and Awadh (Oudh). The East India Company's response came rapidly as well. With help from reinforcements, Kanpur was retaken by mid-July 1857, and Delhi by the end of September. However, it then took the remainder of 1857 and the better part of 1858 for the rebellion to be suppressed in Jhansi, Lucknow, and especially the Awadh countryside. Other regions of Company-controlled India—Bengal province, the Bombay Presidency, In the Punjab, and the Madras Presidency—remained largely calm. In the Punjab, the Sikh princes crucially helped the British by providing both soldiers and support. The large princely states, Hyderabad, Mysore, Travancore, and Kashmir, as well as the smaller ones of Rajputana, did not join the rebellion, serving the British, in the Governor-General Lord Canning's words, as "breakwaters in a storm".

In some regions, most notably in Awadh, the rebellion took on the attributes of a patriotic revolt against British oppression. However, the rebel leaders proclaimed no articles of faith that presaged a new political system. Even so, the rebellion proved to be an important watershed in Indian and British Empire history. It led to the dissolution of the East India Company, and forced the British to reorganize the army, the financial system, and the administration in India, through passage of the Government of India Act 1858. India was thereafter administered directly by the British government in the new British Raj. On 1 November 1858, Queen Victoria issued a proclamation to Indians, which while lacking the authority of a constitutional provision, promised rights similar to those of other British subjects.  In the following decades, when admission to these rights was not always forthcoming, Indians were to pointedly refer to the Queen's proclamation in growing avowals of a new nationaalism.

East India Company's expansion in India –

Although the British East India Company had established a presence in India as far back as 1612, and earlier administered the factory areas established for trading purposes, its victory in the Battle of Plassey in 1757 marked the beginning of its firm foothold in eastern India. The victory was consolidated in 1764 at the Battle of Buxar, when the East India Company army defeated Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II. After his defeat, the emperor granted the company the right to the "collection of Revenue" in the provinces of Bengal (modern day Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha), known as "Diwani" to the company. The Company soon expanded its territories around its bases in Bombay and Madras; later, the Anglo-Mysore Wars (1766—1799) and the Anglo Maratha Wars (1772—1818) led to control of even more of India.

In 1806, the Vellore Mutiny was sparked by new uniform regulations that created resentment amongst both Hindu and Muslim sepoys.

After the turn of the 19th century, Governor-General Wellesley began what became two decades of accelerated expansion of Company territories. This was achieved either by subsidiary alliances between the company and local rulers or by direct military annexation. The subsidiary alliances created the princely states of the Hindu maharajas and the Muslim nawabs. Punjab, North-West Frontier Province, and Kashmir were annexed after the Second Anglo-Sikh War in 1849; however, Kashmir was immediately sold under the 1846 Treaty of Amritsar to the Dogra Dynasty of Jammu and thereby became a princely state. The border dispute between Nepal and British India, which sharpened after 1801 , had caused the Anglo-Nepalese War of 1814—16 and brought the defeated Gurkhas under British influence. In 1854, Berar was annexed, and the state of Oudh was added two years later. For practical purposes, the company was the government of much of India.