World War II - Start and end dates and Background of the war.

 

World War II (September 1, 1939 – September 2, 1945) was a global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies and the Axis Powers. Nearly every nation in the world participated, and many mobilized their resources for total war. Tanks and aircraft played a major role, the latter enabling the strategic bombing of cities and the delivery of the only nuclear weapons used in warfare. World War II is the deadliest conflict in history, killing over 60 million people. Millions more died in massacres, including the Holocaust, and from genocide, starvation, and disease. Following the Allied victory, Germany, Austria, Japan, and Korea were occupied, and German and Japanese leaders were tried for war crimes.

The causes of World War II included unresolved tensions following World War I, and the rise of fascism in Europe and militarism in Japan. Key events leading up to the war included Japan's invasion of Manchuria in 1931, the Spanish Civil War, the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, and Germany's occupation of Austria and the Sudetenland. World War II is generally considered to have begun on September 1, 1939, when Nazi Germany, led by Adolf Hitler, invaded Poland, prompting the United Kingdom and France to declare war on Germany. In mid-September, the Soviet Union also invaded Poland, and it was partitioned between Germany and the Soviet Union under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. In 1940, the Soviet Union occupied the Baltic countries and parts of Finland and Romania, while Germany occupied Norway, Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands. After the fall of France in June 1940, the war continued primarily between Germany, now aided by Fascist Italy, and the British Empire/British Commonwealth, with fighting in the Balkans, the Mediterranean and Middle East, East Africa, the aerial Battle of Britain and the Blitz, and the naval Battle of the Atlantic. By mid-1941, Yugoslavia and Greece had also fallen to the Axis. In June 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union, opening the Eastern Front and initially occupying large areas alongside Axis allies.

In December 1941, Japan attacked American and British territories in Asia and the Pacific, including Pearl Harbor in Hawaii, leading the United States to join the war against the Axis. Japan conquered coastal China and much of Southeast Asia, but its advance in the Pacific was halted at the Battle of Midway in June 1942. In early 1943, Axis forces were defeated in North Africa and at Stalingrad in the Soviet Union. In July, the Allied invasion of Italy ended its fascist regime, and Allied attacks in the Pacific and the Soviet Union forced Axis forces to retreat on all fronts. In 1944, the Western Allies invaded France at Normandy, and the Soviet Union advanced in Central Europe. Meanwhile, Japan suffered major setbacks, including the weakening of its navy by the United States, the loss of key islands in the Western Pacific, and defeats in South-Central China and Burma.

The war in Europe ended with the liberation of German-occupied territories and the Allied invasion of Germany, resulting in the capture of Berlin by Soviet troops and Germany's unconditional surrender on May 8, 1945. On August 6 and 9, the US dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan. Faced with the threat of Allied attack and the possibility of atomic bombing, and the Soviet Union's declaration of war and invasion of Manchuria, Japan announced its unconditional surrender on 15 August, and signed the surrender document on 2 September 1945.

World War II transformed the world's political, economic, and social structure, laying the foundation for international relations for the rest of the 20th century and into the 21st. The United Nations was created to promote international cooperation and prevent future conflicts, with the victorious major powers—China, France, the Soviet Union, the UK, and the US—becoming permanent members of its Security Council. The Soviet Union and the US emerged as rival superpowers, leading to the Cold War that lasted half a century. Following the devastation of Europe, the influence of its major powers diminished, leading to the decolonization of Africa and Asia. Many countries whose industries had suffered losses embarked on economic recovery and expansion.

Start and end dates

Most historians agree that World War II began with the German invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939, and the United Kingdom and France's declaration of war on Germany two days later. Other proposed start dates for the Pacific War include the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War on July 7, 1937, or the first Japanese invasion of Manchuria on September 18, 1931. Other proposed start dates for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on October 3, 1935. British historian Antony Beevor places the beginning of World War II at the Battles of Khalkhin Gol, fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939. Others consider the Spanish Civil War to be the beginning or the beginning of World War II.

There is also disagreement on the exact date the war ended. At the time, it was generally believed that the war ended with the armistice of August 15, 1945 (V-J Day), rather than with Japan's formal surrender on September 2, 1945, which officially ended the war in Asia. A peace treaty was signed between Japan and the Allies in 1951. A 1990 treaty on the future of Germany allowed East and West Germany to be reunited. No formal peace treaty was ever signed between Japan and the Soviet Union, although the state of war between the two countries was ended by the 1956 Soviet–Japanese Joint Declaration, which also restored full diplomatic relations between them.

Background of the war

After World War I

World War I completely altered the political map of Europe with the defeat of the Central Powers – Austria-Hungary, Germany, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire – and the Bolshevik seizure of power in Russia in 1917, creating the Soviet Union. Meanwhile, victorious World War I allies, such as France, Belgium, Italy, Romania, and Greece, gained territory, and the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian empires led to the formation of new nation-states.

To prevent a future world war, the Paris Peace Conference of 1920 established the League of Nations. The organization's primary goals were to prevent armed conflict through collective security, military and naval disarmament, and the resolution of international disputes through peaceful negotiations and arbitration.

Despite strong pacifist sentiment after World War I, irredentist and revanchist nationalism emerged in many European countries. These sentiments were particularly strong in Germany, as the Treaty of Versailles had resulted in significant territorial, colonial, and financial losses. Under the treaty, Germany lost approximately 13 percent of its territory and all of its foreign lands, while German occupation of other countries was prohibited, reparations were imposed, and limits were placed on the size and capabilities of the country's military.

Germany and Italy

The German Revolution of 1918–1919 ended the German Empire, and a democratic government was established, later known as the Weimar Republic. The interwar period was marked by conflict between supporters of the new republic and staunch opponents on both the political right and left. Italy, as an Entente ally, had gained some territorial gains after the war; however, Italian nationalists were angry that the promises made by the United Kingdom and France to Italy upon Italy's entry into the war were not fulfilled in the peace settlement. From 1922 to 1925, the Fascist movement, led by Benito Mussolini, seized power in Italy with a nationalist, totalitarian, and class collaborative agenda that abolished representative democracy, suppressed socialist, left-wing, and liberal forces, and pursued an aggressive expansionist foreign policy aimed at making Italy a world power, promising to create a "New Roman Empire".

After a failed attempt to overthrow the German government in 1923, Adolf Hitler finally became Chancellor of Germany in 1933 when President Paul von Hindenburg and the Reichstag appointed him. After Hindenburg's death in 1934, Hitler declared himself Führer of Germany and abolished democracy, supporting a radical, racially motivated change in the world order, and soon launched a massive rearmament campaign. France, in an attempt to cement its alliance with Italy, gave Italy free rein in Ethiopia, which Italy wanted as a colonial possession. The situation worsened in early 1935 when the Saar Basin region was legally reintegrated into Germany, and Hitler rejected the Treaty of Versailles, accelerated his rearmament program, and began conscription.

World War I - the beginning of the destruction of the world

The First World War, or the First World War (July 28, 1914 – November 11, 1918), also known as the Great War, was a global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers. The main areas of conflict included Europe and the Middle East, as well as parts of Africa and the Asia-Pacific. The conflict saw significant developments in weapons such as tanks, aircraft, artillery, machine guns, and chemical weapons. One of the bloodiest conflicts in history, it resulted in approximately 30 million military casualties and 8 million civilian deaths from war-related causes and genocide. The movement of large numbers of people was a major factor in the deadly Spanish flu pandemic.

The causes of World War I included the rise of the German Empire and the decline of the Ottoman Empire, which disrupted the long-standing balance of power in Europe, exacerbated imperial rivalries, and triggered an arms race between the major powers. Rising tensions in the Balkans reached a peak on June 28, 1914, when Bosnian Serb Gavrilo Princip assassinated Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne. Austria-Hungary blamed Serbia and declared war on July 28. After Russia came to Serbia's defense, Germany declared war on Russia and France, who had formed an alliance. The United Kingdom joined the war after Germany invaded Belgium, and the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers in November. Germany's strategy in 1914 was to quickly defeat France and then send its army eastward. However, its advance was halted in September, and by the end of the year, the Western Front consisted of a nearly continuous line of trenches from the English Channel to Switzerland. The Eastern Front was more fortified, but despite costly offensives, neither side achieved significant gains. Italy, Bulgaria, Romania, Greece and other countries joined the war from 1915 onwards.

Major battles such as Verdun, the Somme, and Passchendaele failed to break the logjam on the Western Front. In April 1917, after Germany resumed unrestrained submarine warfare against Atlantic shipping, the United States joined the Allies. Later that year, the Bolsheviks seized power in Russia in the October Revolution; Soviet Russia signed an armistice with the Central Powers in December, followed by a separate peace treaty in March 1918. That month, Germany launched a Spring Offensive in the west, which, despite initial successes, exhausted and demoralized the German army. The Allied Hundred Days Offensive, which began in August 1918, led to the collapse of the German front line. Following the Vardar Offensive, Bulgaria signed an armistice in late September. By early November, the Allies had signed armistices with the Ottomans and Austria-Hungary, leaving Germany isolated. Facing revolution at home, Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated on November 9, and the war ended with the Armistice of November 11, 1918.

The Paris Peace Conference of 1919-1920 imposed compromises on the defeated powers. Under the Treaty of Versailles, Germany lost considerable territory, was stripped of its weapons, and was required to pay substantial war reparations to the Allies. The collapse of the Russian, German, Austro-Hungarian, and Ottoman empires created new national boundaries and led to the creation of newly independent countries such as Poland, Finland, the Baltic countries, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia. The League of Nations was established to maintain world peace, but its failure to manage the instability of the interwar period contributed to the outbreak of World War II in 1939.

Before World War II, the events of 1914–1918 were commonly referred to as the Great War or simply the World War. In August 1914, The Independent said of the conflict, "This is the Great War. It deserves its own name." Ten years after its end, many expected it to be "the war to end all wars" because of its immense destruction and high death toll. The term First World War was first used in September 1914, when German biologist and philosopher Ernst Haeckel wrote that the ongoing "European War" would become "the first world war in the full sense of the word."

Background to the War

Political and Military Alliances

For most of the 19th century, the major European powers maintained a tenuous balance of power known as the Concert of Europe. After 1848, this was challenged by Britain's descent into splendid isolation, the decline of the Ottoman Empire, New Imperialism, and the rise of Prussia under Otto von Bismarck. Victory in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871 allowed Bismarck to consolidate a German Empire. After 1871, French policy aimed to avenge this defeat and expand France's colonial empire.

In 1873, Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors, comprising Austria-Hungary, Russia, and Germany. After the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878, the League was dissolved due to Austrian concerns about growing Russian influence in the Balkans, an area they considered of vital strategic interest. Germany and Austria-Hungary formed the Dual Alliance in 1879, which became the Triple Alliance when Italy joined in 1882. For Bismarck, the purpose of these agreements was to isolate France so that the three empires could resolve any disputes among themselves. In 1887, Bismarck created the Reinsurance Treaty, a secret agreement between Germany and Russia that would remain neutral if either France or Austria-Hungary were attacked.

For Bismarck, peace with Russia was the foundation of German foreign policy, but in 1890, Wilhelm II forced him to retire. The latter was persuaded by his new Chancellor, Leo von Caprivi, not to renew the Reinsurance Treaty. This led France to agree to the Franco-Russian Alliance in 1894, followed by the Entente Cordiale with Britain in 1904. The Triple Entente was completed by the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907. Although these were not formal alliances, by resolving long-standing colonial disputes in Asia and Africa, British support for either France or Russia in any future conflict became a possibility. This was further exacerbated by British and Russian support for France against Germany during the Agadir Crisis of 1911.

Germany's economic and industrial power continued to grow rapidly after 1871. With the support of Wilhelm II, Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz used this growth to build an Imperial German Navy that could rival the British Royal Navy. This policy was based on the work of US naval author Alfred Thayer Mahan, who argued that a blue-water navy was essential to projecting power worldwide; Tirpitz had his books translated into German, while Wilhelm made them mandatory reading for his advisors and senior military staff.

Bismarck opposed any attempt to compete with the Royal Navy, believing that Britain would not interfere in Europe as long as its maritime dominance was secure. His removal in 1890 led to a change in policy and an arms race between the Anglo-German navies. Despite the enormous sums spent by Tirpitz, the launch of HMS Dreadnought in 1906 rendered every existing battleship obsolete, giving the British a technological advantage they never relinquished. Ultimately, Germany invested enormous resources in building a navy large enough to trouble Britain, but could not defeat it. In 1911, Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg conceded defeat, leading to the Rüstungswende, or 'turning point on armaments,' when he shifted spending from the navy to the army.

This decision was driven by German concerns about the speed of Russia's recovery following its defeat in the Russo-Japanese War and the subsequent Russian Revolution of 1905. Economic reforms led to a significant expansion of railway and transportation infrastructure after 1908, especially along its western border. Since Germany and Austria-Hungary relied on rapid mobilization to compensate for their numerical weakness compared to Russia, the threat posed by closing this gap was more important than confronting the Royal Navy. In 1913, Germany increased its standing army by 170,000 men, followed by France's extension of compulsory military service from two to three years, prompting similar measures from the Balkan countries, Italy, the Ottoman Empire, and Austria-Hungary. Accurate figures are difficult to calculate due to differences in expenditure categories, which often exclude civilian infrastructure projects, such as railways, which had logistical significance and military applications. However, from 1908 to 1913, military expenditures for the six major European powers actually increased by more than 50%.

 

Early childhood education

 

Early Childhood Education (ECE), also known as nursery education, is a branch of education theory that deals with the education of children (both formally and informally) from birth to the age of eight. Traditionally, this corresponds to the third grade. Early Childhood Education is considered a crucial period in a child's development.

Early Childhood Education emerged as a field of study during the Enlightenment, particularly in European countries with high literacy rates. It continued to grow in the nineteenth century as universal primary education became the norm in the Western world. In recent years, early childhood education has become a common public policy issue, as municipal, state, and federal lawmakers debate funding for preschool and pre-K. Governing bodies are also debating the central focus of early childhood education, focusing on developmentally appropriate play versus a robust academic preparation curriculum in reading, writing, and math. The global priority given to early childhood education is further emphasized by the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 4. However, by 2023, "only 4 in 10 children aged 3 and 4 worldwide receive early childhood education." Furthermore, participation levels vary greatly across regions. "In Latin America and the Caribbean, approximately 2 in 3 children receive ECE, while in South Asia, approximately half of children and in sub-Saharan Africa, only 1 in 4 children receive ECE." Following the Convention on the Rights of the Child in the 1990s, all Latin American countries enacted laws in accordance with the provisions of this international convention, and the state assumed responsibility for the right to education for the youngest children.

ECE is also a professional designation obtained through post-secondary education programs. For example, in Ontario, Canada, the ECE (Early Childhood Educator) and RECE (Registered Early Childhood Educator) designations can only be used by registered members of the College of Early Childhood Educators, which is composed of accredited child care professionals and is responsible for the College's Standards of Practice.

Research shows that early childhood education has significant positive short-term and long-term effects on the children who attend it, and the costs are far outweighed by the benefits education programs bring to society.

According to the OECD, investing in high-quality early childhood education and care (ECEC) is a cost-effective way to significantly improve children's cognitive, social, and emotional development. Skills learned at an early age provide a foundation for later learning and maximize the impact of subsequent educational investments.

Theories of Child Development

The developmental interaction approach is based on the theories of Jean Piaget, Erik Erikson, John Dewey, and Lucy Sprague Mitchell. This approach focuses on learning through discovery. Jean-Jacques Rousseau suggested that teachers should take advantage of each child's preferences to ensure that each child receives the information most important for their personal and individual development. The five developmental domains of childhood development include:

Physical: the way in which a child develops biological and physical functions, including eyesight and motor skills

Social: the way in which a child interacts with others Children develop an understanding of their responsibilities and rights as members of families and communities, as well as an ability to relate to and work with others.

Emotional: The way a child forms emotional connections and develops self-confidence. Emotional connections develop when children connect with other people and share feelings.

Language: The way a child communicates, including how they express their feelings and emotions to others and themselves. At 3 months of age, children make different sounds for different needs. By 6 months of age, they can recognize and imitate the basic sounds of spoken language. In the first 3 years, children need exposure to communication with others to learn language. "Normal" language development is measured by the rate of vocabulary acquisition.

Cognitive skills: The way a child organizes information. Cognitive skills include problem-solving, creativity, imagination, and memory. These reflect the way children understand the world. Piaget believed that children show major differences in their thinking patterns as they move through stages of cognitive development: the sensorimotor period, the pre-operational period, and the operational period.

To meet those developmental domains, a child has certain needs that must be met for learning to occur. Maslow's hierarchy of needs shows different levels of needs that must be met; the chart to the right illustrates these needs.

Agricultural Development in India | History of Indian Agriculture

 

Agriculture refers to crop production and animal husbandry. India's economy is based on agriculture. Agriculture has been practiced in India for approximately 10,000 years. That is why India is called an agricultural country. However, it is fair to say that real agricultural development in India began with the Green Revolution of the 1960s, led by Dr. M.S. Swaminathan. Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru and Dr. A.B. Joshi played a key role in bringing the Green Revolution to India. Since then, India has established a strong agricultural infrastructure, and today India has all the necessary technologies available.

History of Indian Agriculture

India has a rich agricultural tradition. Historians' research shows that even during the Indus Valley Civilization, agriculture was the backbone of India's economy.

During the Vedic period, sowing and harvesting were practiced. Tools such as plows, sickles, and sieves were used, and various grains such as wheat, rice, and barley were cultivated. Ancient India is also credited with establishing the tradition of increasing soil fertility through the system of cyclic fallow. According to Romesberg (the father of European botany), this system was later adopted in the Western world.

During research on the Indus Valley Civilization, excavations in Kantha have uncovered abundant evidence that agriculture was highly advanced approximately five thousand years ago. Revenue was paid in grain, a conclusion drawn by literary scholars and archaeologists based on the extensive granaries excavated at Mohenjo-daro. Furthermore, samples of wheat and barley recovered during excavations confirm their presence as staple crops at that time.

Kautilya's Arthashastra describes the appointment of agricultural officials to promote agriculture and agricultural production during the Mauryan period. The Greek traveler Megasthenes also wrote that the king appointed officials to ensure equitable distribution of water in the main canal and its branches, and to inspect rivers and wells.

Indian agriculture suffered the most adverse effects before India's independence. During this period, the Indian economy was exploited and fell prey to British self-interest, and its consequences were felt across all sectors. Indeed, this was a period of exploitation of the Indian agricultural sector, resulting in a worsening of agricultural conditions.

After independence, until the mid-1960s, agriculture in India used traditional seeds, which had relatively low yields and required less irrigation. Farmers used cow dung as fertilizer.

After 1960, the use of high-yield seeds (HYV) began. This increased the use of irrigation and chemical fertilizers and pesticides. This also increased the need for irrigation. This also led to a significant increase in wheat and rice production, which is why it is also called the Green Revolution.

Agricultural Equipment

In India, traditional agricultural tools such as hoes, pickaxes, sickles, and axes are used alongside modern machinery. Farmers use tractors for plowing, harvesters for harvesting, and threshers for threshing.

Irrigation in India

Irrigation in India refers to the supply of water for cultivation and agricultural activities from Indian rivers, ponds, wells, canals, and other artificial projects. In a country like India, 64% of arable land is monsoon-dependent. The economic importance of irrigation in India includes reducing volatility in production, improving agricultural productivity, reducing dependence on monsoons, bringing more land under cultivation, creating employment opportunities, increasing access to electricity and transportation, and controlling floods and droughts.

Agricultural Exports

India's agricultural exports have reached a historic high of $50 billion. Agricultural product exports for the year 2021-22 have crossed $50 billion. This is the highest agricultural product export ever. According to provisional data released by the Directorate General of Commercial Intelligence and Statistics, agricultural production increased by 19.92 percent to $50.21 billion during 2021-22.

This growth rate is impressive and exceeds the growth rate of 17.66 percent, i.e. $41.87 billion, in 2020-21. This achievement over the last two years will significantly contribute to realizing Prime Minister Narendra Modi's dream of improving farmers' incomes. This is the highest ever export of rice, wheat, sugar, and other grains. Wheat exports have registered an unprecedented increase of 273 percent.

Indus Valley Civilization | Etymology and The Extent of the Indus Valley Civilization.

The Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3300–1300 BCE) was a civilization of ancient India. The Indus Valley Civilization spanned the Indus River region of South Asia. Its early development (c. 7500–3300 BCE) occurred along the banks of the Indus and Ghaggar/Hakra rivers. Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Kalibangan, Lothal, Dholavira, and Rakhigarhi were its major centers. In 2014, Bhirdana was identified as the oldest city discovered in the Indus Valley Civilization, dating back to approximately 7500 to 6500 BCE. Based on excavations conducted during the British period, archaeologists and historians estimate that this was a highly developed civilization, with cities being settled and destroyed several times.

In the seventh century, when people were digging clay for bricks in the Punjab province, they found ready-made bricks, which they considered a miracle from God and used to build houses. Subsequently, in 1826, Charles Mason first discovered this ancient civilization. Cunningham surveyed the site in 1856. During the construction of the railway line between Karachi and Lahore in 1856, the Burton brothers reported the Harappa site to the government. Consequently, the Archaeological Survey of India was established in 1861 under the direction of Alexander Cunningham. In 1902, Lord Curzon appointed John Marshall as Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India. Fleet wrote an article about this ancient civilization. In 1921, Daya Ram Sahni excavated Harappa. Thus, the civilization was named the Harappan Civilization, and Rakhaldas Banerjee was credited with discovering Mohenjo-daro.

This civilization was spread across the Indus River valley, hence the name Indus Valley Civilization. It is also called the first urbanization because of the emergence of cities. It is also called the Bronze Age because of the first use of bronze. 1,400 centers of the Indus Valley Civilization have been discovered, of which 925 are in India. 80 percent of the sites are located around the Indus River and its tributaries. Only 3 percent of the total discovered sites have been excavated so far.

Etymology

The Indus Valley Civilization spanned a vast area. Sindhu was a civilization located along the banks of the Indus River. Due to variations in its geographical pronunciation, this Sindhu came to be called Sindhu, which later gave rise to the Hindu pronunciation for the people who lived there. Evidence of this civilization was found in the excavations at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro. Scholars therefore named it the Indus Valley Civilization, as these areas fell within the basin of the Indus and its tributaries. However, later, remains of this civilization were also found in Ropar, Lothal, Kalibangan, Banawali, and Rangpur, all of which lay outside the basin of the Indus and its tributaries. Therefore, many historians consider it more appropriate to call this civilization the "Harappan Civilization," since Harappa was its primary center, although the river itself is actually called the Indus.

The Extent of the Indus Valley Civilization

The territory of this civilization was many times larger and more extensive than any other ancient civilization in the world. The center of this civilization was in Punjab and Sindh. It subsequently expanded southward and eastward. Thus, the Harappan culture extended not only to parts of Punjab, Sindh, and Balochistan, but also to the border regions of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana, and western Uttar Pradesh. Its extent stretched from the banks of the Chenab River at Manda in the north to Daimabad (Maharashtra) in the south, and from Sutkagendor Pak in Sindh province, located on the Makran coast of Balochistan, in the west, to Hiranyakashipu, Meerut, and Kurukshetra in Alamgirpur in the northeast. The region's initial extent was triangular (from Manda in Jammu in the north to Bhogtar in Gujarat in the south, and from Sutkagendor in Afghanistan in the west to Meerut in Uttar Pradesh in the east), covering an area of ​​2,000,000 square kilometers. This area is not only larger than modern-day Pakistan, but also larger than ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. During the third and second millennia BC, no civilization in the world had a larger area than the Harappan culture. To date, a total of 1,500 sites of this culture have been discovered in the Indian subcontinent. Some of these sites are in the early stages, some in the mature stage, and some in the late stage.

Only a few sites are in the mature stage. Before the discovery of the Indus Valley Civilization, geologists and scholars believed that human civilization originated with the Aryans. But evidence from the Indus Valley dispelled their misconceptions, and they were forced to believe that ancient Indian civilization flourished long before the arrival of the Aryans. This civilization was named the Indus Valley Civilization or Indus Civilization. Only half a dozen of these sites can be considered cities. Two of these are extremely important: Harappa in Punjab and Mohenjo-daro (original pronunciation: Muenjo-daro, literally "mound of ghosts") in Sindh. Both sites are in present-day Pakistan, 483 kilometers apart, and are connected by the Indus River. The third city was located at Chanhu-daro, 130 kilometers south of Mohenjo-daro, and the fourth was at Lothal on the Gulf of Khambhat in Gujarat. Additionally, Kalibangan (literally "black bangles") in northern Rajasthan and Banawali in the Hisar district of Haryana are located. All these sites reflect a mature and advanced Harappan culture. The coastal cities of Sutkagendor and Surkotada also represent a mature phase of this culture. Both are characterized by the presence of a city citadel. Remains of the Late Harappan period have also been found at Rangpur and Rojdi in the Kathiawar peninsula of Gujarat. Charles Mason first discovered this civilization in 1826.

Town Planning

The most distinctive feature of this civilization was its developed town planning. Both Harappa and Mohenjo-daro had their own citadels, where the ruling families lived. Outside the citadel of each city was a lower town where the common people lived in brick houses. A distinctive feature of these urban buildings was that they were built in a grid-like manner. Streets intersected each other at right angles, dividing the city into numerous rectangular sections. This was true of all Indus settlements, whether large or small. The buildings of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro were massive. The monuments there bear witness to the mastery of their rulers' labor and tax collection. Even the common people admired their power and prestige upon seeing these massive brick buildings.

Mohenjo-daro's most famous site is the Great Public Bath, whose reservoir is located within the citadel mound. It is a beautiful example of brick architecture. It is 11.88 meters long, 7.01 meters wide, and 2.43 meters deep. Stairs lead down at both ends. Adjacent to this are changing rooms. The bathroom floor is made of baked bricks. A nearby room houses a large well, from which water was drawn and poured into a pipe. The pipe has a vent at the corner, allowing water to flow into a drain. This massive bath is believed to have been built for ritual bathing, traditionally essential for religious ceremonies in India. The largest structure at Mohenjo-daro is the granary, measuring 45.71 meters long and 15.23 meters wide. Six granaries have been found within the Harappan citadel, built in two rows on a brick platform. Each granary is 15.23 meters long and 6.09 meters wide and is located a few meters from the river bank. The floor area of ​​these twelve units is approximately 838.125 square meters, approximately equal to the granary at Mohenjo-daro. To the south of the Harappan granaries is an open floor, on which circular brick platforms are built in two rows. Wheat and barley grains have been found in cracks in the floor, suggesting that crops were threshed on these platforms. Two-room barracks have also been found in Harappa, likely for laborers. At Kalibangan, brick platforms have been found in the southern part of the city, likely for granaries. Thus, it is clear that granaries were an integral part of Harappan culture.

The use of bricks in Harappan cities is unique, as Egyptian buildings of the same period used only sun-dried bricks. The use of baked bricks is also evident in contemporary Mesopotamia, but not on the same scale as the Indus Valley Civilization. Mohenjo-daro's drainage system was remarkable. Almost every house, whether large or small, had a courtyard and a bathroom. Water from the houses flowed onto the streets, where drains were built beneath them. These drains were often covered with bricks and stone slabs. These drains also had manholes. Remains of roads and drains have also been found in Banawali.

 

Mohenjo-daro Civilization | History of the Mohenjo-daro Civilization

 

Mohenjo-daro is an archaeological site located in the Sindh province of ancient India. Numerous remains of the Indus Valley Civilization have been found here.

Mohenjo-Daro Civilization

The word "Mohenjo-Daro" is derived from the Sindhi language, and its correct pronunciation is "Muan-jo-Daro." It literally means "mound of burials." It is considered the world's oldest planned and most developed city. It is the most advanced city of the Indus Valley Civilization. The remains of this city are located on the banks of the Indus River in Sukkur district. It was discovered by Rakhaldas Banerjee in 1922. Excavations began under the direction of John Marshall, Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India. A large number of buildings, metal statues, and seals were discovered during the excavations. In the last 100 years, only one-third of the city has been excavated, and that has now ceased. It is believed that the city covered an area of ​​125 hectares and also had a reservoir.

History of the Mohenjo-daro Civilization

Mohenjo-daro was the center of the ancient civilization of the Indus Valley. It is located twenty kilometers from Ladkana and 80 kilometers southwest of Sukkur. It is 400 miles from Harappa, another important center in the Indus Valley. The city existed around 2600 BCE and disappeared for unknown reasons around 1700 BCE. However, experts believe that changes in the course of the Indus River, floods, external invasions, or earthquakes may have been the main causes.

Mohenjo-daro was discovered in 1922 by British archaeologist Sir John Marshall, and its remains remain a feature of the Mohenjo-daro Museum. However, there is also a school of thought that disputes this interpretation and claims that it was discovered in 1911 by R.K. Bhinder, an expert on antiquities in secular India. Hakim Shah Bukhari, former director of the Mohenjo-daro Conservation Cell, says, "R.K. Bhinder drew attention to the site's historical significance as a sacred Buddhist site. About an ashra later, Sir John Marshall visited the site and began excavations. The city was well-organized. Its streets were open and straight, with proper drainage. It is estimated that about 35,000 people lived there. Experts estimate that the city was destroyed and resettled seven times, the most significant of which was by the floods of the Indus River. The world's first bathhouse, known as the Great Bath, was found here. The city is a World Heritage Site under the auspices of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).

Features of Mohenjo-Daro

The beauty of Mohenjo-Daro is that you can still wander the streets and lanes of this ancient city. Artifacts of its civilization and culture adorn museums, but the city remains where it once was. Its walls still stand strong, and you can relax here. Despite its ruins, you can suddenly feel a sense of peace as you step onto the threshold of a house, or smell a fragrance while standing at a kitchen window. Or you can hear the tinkling sound of a bullock cart on a deserted city street, or the color of the soil you may have seen in archaeological photographs. It's true that the broken steps in the courtyard no longer lead you anywhere; they are incomplete, reaching the sky. But standing on those incomplete steps, it feels like you're on the roof of the world; from there, you're looking not at history, but at its present. This city is said to be India's oldest historical site.

Famous Pond

In Mohenjo-daro's Divinity Lane, located in a lane called Divinity Lane, is the famous pond, approximately forty feet long, twenty-five feet wide, and seven feet deep. Stairs descend into the pond from the north and south. Rooms are built on three sides of the pond. Eight bathrooms are located on the north side. The pond was constructed with great care, as none of its doors faces another. The bricks are exceptionally strong. To prevent impure water from entering the pond, lime and chirodi mortar were used between the bricks on the bottom and walls. The walls are paved with asphalt. A double-circular well was built to supply water to the pond. Drains made of baked bricks were also built to drain the water from the pond, and, importantly, it is covered with baked bricks. This proves that despite being so ancient, the people here were in no way inferior to us. Overall, the Indus Valley was characterized by its baked bricks and covered drains, and its well-organized drainage system was unmatched in earlier recorded history.

Agriculture at Mohenjo-daro

Excavations have also revealed the existence of an agricultural and pastoral civilization. Tools made of stone from Sindh and copper from Rajasthan were used for farming. According to historian Irfan Habib, the people here cultivated the Rabi crop. Excavations have revealed strong evidence of the cultivation of wheat, mustard, cotton, barley, and gram. It is believed that many other crops were also grown here; seeds of all but cotton have been found. A sample of one of the world's two oldest cotton fabrics was found here. Excavations have also uncovered a textile dyeing factory.

Town Planning

The buildings of Mohenjo-daro may have fallen into ruins, but these ruins are enough to illustrate the vastness of the city's streets and lanes. The streets follow a grid plan, meaning they are crisscrossed.

The eastern settlements are considered "elite settlements" because they feature large houses, wide roads, and numerous wells. The streets of Mohenjo-daro are so wide that two bullock carts can easily pass through them. Houses are on both sides of the road. Interestingly, only the backs of the houses face the road, meaning the doors face the inner lanes. In fact, Mohenjo-daro is commendable from a health perspective because, despite being so far behind us, its town planning system is remarkable. Historians say that Mohenjo-daro was the first culture of the Indus Valley Civilization to obtain groundwater by digging wells. Mohenjo-daro had approximately 700 wells. Looking at its unmatched drainage system, wells, ponds and rivers, we can say that the Mohenjodaro civilization was truly a water culture.

Mohenjo-Daro Museum

The Mohenjo-Daro Museum is small. Its main collections are located in Karachi, Lahore, Delhi, and London. It houses black wheat, copper and bronze vessels, seals, musical instruments, large pottery carved on a wheel and painted black and brown, chess pieces, lamps, scales, a copper mirror, a clay bullock cart and other toys, a two-stone mill, combs, clay bracelets, necklaces with colorful stone beads, and stone tools. According to Ali Nawaz, who works at the museum, some gold jewelry was once found here, but was stolen.

A special feature of this museum is that it contains tools, but no weapons. Through this research, scholars are trying to understand the governance and social management practices of the Indus Valley Civilization. Discipline was certainly there, but not by force, but by intelligence.

The museum also includes some needles. Numerous copper and bronze needles were found during the excavation. Kashinath Dixit found three gold needles, one of which was two inches long. These are believed to have been used for intricate embroidery. In addition to these needles, ivory and copper needles were also found during the excavation.

An important Satyagraha in the life of Mahatma Gandhi: Champaran Satyagraha

 

In 1917, Mahatma Gandhi led a movement in the Champaran district of Bihar, known as the Champaran Satyagraha. This was Gandhi's first satyagraha in India.

Background to the Champaran Satyagraha

Mahatma Gandhi attended the Lucknow session of the Congress in December 1916. On this occasion, he met a man who would change the course of his political career: Rajkumar Shukla. This simple but determined man told him about the suffering of the peasants in his region and their exploitation by the British, and urged him to end it.

Gandhiji was not impressed by Rajkumar Shukla at first meeting, and therefore refused him. However, Shukla met him repeatedly and persuaded him to accept his request. As a result, within four months, the peasants of Champaran were permanently freed from the forced cultivation of indigo on 15% of their land. Gandhiji was not confident of such quick success. Thus, Gandhi's connection with Bihar and Champaran was forever linked.

The Champaran peasant movement took place in April 1917. It was on the soil of Champaran that Gandhiji first employed his proven weapons of Satyagraha and non-violence in India, which he had practiced in South Africa. It was here that he resolved that from then on, he would live his life wearing only one garment. It was after this movement that he was awarded the title of "Mahatma." This movement also gave the country such great figures as Rajendra Prasad, Acharya Kripalani, Mazharul Haq, and Brijkishore Prasad.

In the twelfth chapter of the fifth part of his autobiography, "Experiments with Truth," titled "The Stain of Indigo," Gandhiji writes, "Before going to the Lucknow session, I did not even know the name of Champaran. I had no knowledge of indigo cultivation. I was unaware of the suffering that thousands of farmers had to endure because of it." He further writes, "Rajkumar Shukla, a farmer from Champaran, followed me there. He kept following me and inviting me to his place, saying that he would tell everything to Vakil Babu (Brijkishore Prasad, who was a famous lawyer of Bihar at that time and father-in-law of Jayaprakash Narayan)."

But Mahatma Gandhi told Rajkumar Shukla not to follow him for the time being. At this session, Brijkishore Prasad spoke on the plight of Champaran, after which the Congress passed a resolution. Still, Rajkumar Shukla did not relent and insisted on taking Gandhi to Champaran. Gandhi reluctantly replied, "I will include Champaran in my tour and stay there for a day or two to see the situation for myself. I cannot express my opinion on this matter without seeing it."

Gandhi then went to Kanpur, but Shukla remained adamant. He said, "Champaran is very close. Please give me a day." Gandhi replied, "Forgive me now, but I will definitely go there." Gandhi writes that he felt bound by this.

Still, the stubborn farmer persisted. He reached his ashram in Ahmedabad and insisted on setting a date for his departure. Gandhi could not resist. He announced his departure for Calcutta on April 7th. He requested Rajkumar Shukla to come and welcome him. Shukla had already set up camp there before Gandhiji arrived in Calcutta on April 7, 1917. Gandhiji wrote, "This illiterate, unsophisticated, but determined peasant has won me over."

Gandhiji's First Visit to Patna and the Champaran Movement

Champaran is located in the northwestern region of Bihar. It borders Nepal. At that time, the British had implemented a law requiring farmers to cultivate indigo on every bigha (three katthas) of land. Indigo was cultivated throughout the country, except in Bengal. Farmers received nothing in return for their labor and were subjected to 42 extraordinary taxes. Rajkumar Shukla was a prosperous farmer in that region. He strongly opposed this system of exploitation, resulting in repeated flogging and torture by the British. When his efforts failed, he decided to go to the Lucknow Congress to invite Bal Gangadhar Tilak. However, upon his arrival, he received a suggestion to include Gandhiji, and he considered it.

Finally, Gandhiji agreed, and on April 10, the two arrived in Patna from Calcutta. He writes, "On the way, I realized that this gentleman was a very simple man and that I would have to proceed in my own way." After Patna, the two arrived in Muzaffarpur the next day. There, the next morning, they were welcomed by J.B. Kripalani, a professor at Muzaffarpur University and later president of the Congress Party, and his students. Shukla left Gandhi there and left for Champaran to complete all preparations before departure. It was in Muzaffarpur that Rajendra Prasad first met Gandhi. It was here, with the support of several prominent lawyers and social activists in the state, that they finalized their future strategy.

Subsequently, despite the Commissioner's refusal to grant permission, Mahatma Gandhi entered Champaran on April 15. He received the unwavering support of many farmers, including Rajkumar Shukla. Statements from the affected farmers were recorded. The struggle was fought nonviolently, without direct support from the Congress. It was widely covered in local newspapers, garnering widespread public support for the movement. As a result, the British government was forced to yield. Indigo cultivation, which had been prevalent for the past 135 years, gradually ceased. The exploitation of indigo farmers also ended forever.

Bardoli Satyagraha: A nationalist movement in India | Bardoli Satyagraha Movement

 

The Bardoli Satyagraha was a peasant movement and nationalist protest in India. It was a protest against the increased taxes imposed on farmers by the colonial government, specifically demanding the rollback of a 22% tax hike in the Bombay Presidency. The movement began on February 12, 1928, and concluded successfully in August of the same year. It was ultimately led by Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, and its success established him as one of the key leaders of the Indian independence movement.

Background of the Bardoli Satyagraha

In 1926, the Bardoli taluk in Surat district of Gujarat was facing an economic crisis. That year, the Bombay Presidency government increased the tax rate by 30%. Despite appeals from local groups, the government refused to roll back the tax increase and ignored the people's grievances. The farmers' situation was so dire that they barely had enough property and crops left to pay the taxes, let alone support their families.

Exploring Options for the Bardoli Satyagraha

Gujarati activists Narhari Parikh, Ravishankar Vyas, and Mohanlal Pandya met with village leaders and farmers, seeking support from Vallabhbhai Patel, one of Gujarat's most prominent freedom fighters. Patel had led the peasants of Gujarat during the Kheda Satyagraha and had recently served as the mayor of Ahmedabad. He was held in high esteem by the people of the state.

Patel told a delegation of farmers that they should fully understand the implications of rebellion. He would not lead them until there was consensus and understanding across all the villages. Failure to pay taxes could result in the confiscation of their property, including their land, and many could be sent to jail. They could face total ruin. The villagers replied that they were prepared for even the worst outcome, but they could not tolerate the government's unjust actions.

Patel then asked Gandhi to consider the matter, but Gandhi only sought Patel's opinion, and when Patel outlined the way forward with complete confidence, he gave his blessing. However, Gandhi and Patel agreed that neither the Congress nor Gandhi would be directly involved; the movement would be entirely in the hands of the people of Bardoli Taluk.

Bardoli Satyagraha Movement

On February 6, Patel first wrote a letter to the Governor of Bombay, requesting a reduction in the tax for that year, given the hardships faced by the people. However, the Governor ignored the letter and announced the date for tax collection.

Thereafter, Patel instructed all the farmers of the Bardoli taluk to refuse to pay the tax. With the help of Narhari Parikh, Ravishankar Vyas, and Mohanlal Pandya, he divided Bardoli into several zones, appointing a leader and volunteers in each zone. Patel also deployed some active workers close to the government to keep track of the activities of government officials.

Most importantly, Patel instructed the farmers to remain completely non-violent and not to react physically to any provocation or violent action by the authorities. He assured them that the movement would continue until all the taxes for that year were waived and all confiscated property and land were returned to their rightful owners.

The people of Gujarat fully supported the farmers. Many farmers hid their valuables with relatives in other areas, and the protesters received financial aid and essential supplies from other regions. However, Patel did not allow any sympathetic demonstrations by enthusiastic supporters in Gujarat or other parts of the country.

The government declared that it would crush this rebellion. Along with tax collectors, some Pathans from northwest India were also brought in to seize the villagers' property and intimidate them. The Pathans and tax collectors forcibly entered houses and looted all property, including livestock (the protesters kept their animals inside their houses when the tax collectors came, so they couldn't take the animals from the fields).

The government started auctioning the houses and land, but no one from Gujarat or any other part of the country came forward to buy them. Patel had appointed volunteers to monitor each village. As soon as the volunteers learned that the officials were coming to auction the property, they would blow conch shells. The farmers would then leave the village and hide in the forest. They never knew which house belonged to whom.

But some wealthy people from Bombay came to buy some land. Even a village that had paid its taxes was targeted. Those who did not participate in the tax boycott or bought confiscated land were ostracized by the community; relatives severed all ties with the families in the village. Other forms of social sanctions against such landlords included refusing to rent their land or work for them. Members of the Legislative Council in Bombay and across India were outraged by the brutal treatment of the protesting peasants. Indian members resigned from their posts and openly expressed their support for the farmers.

Simon Commission: Indian Statutory Commission | Lala Lajpat Rai's Opposition to the Simon Commission and His Death

The Indian Statutory Commission, also known as the Simon Commission, was a group of seven members of the British Parliament, chaired by John Simon. This commission came to the Indian subcontinent in 1928 to study constitutional reforms in British India. One of its members was Clement Attlee, who later became the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (1945-1951).

Background

This commission was formed because in 1919, when the British government implemented the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms, they announced that a commission would be sent to India after ten years to examine the impact and functioning of the constitutional reforms and to advise on further reforms.

The Muslim League and the Indian National Congress, along with prominent Indian leaders such as Nehru, Gandhi, and Jinnah, strongly opposed this commission because all its members were British, and there were no Indian members. However, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, Periyar E.V. Ramasamy, and Chaudhry Rahmat Ali supported it.

The prominent Indian nationalist Lala Lajpat Rai led the protests against this commission in Lahore. During the protests, the police brutally assaulted him, and he died 18 days later on November 17, 1928.

The Government of India Act of 1919 introduced the system of dual government for governing the provinces of British India. Public opinion in India demanded changes to this system of governance, and the 1919 Government of India Act stipulated that a commission would be appointed after ten years to examine the progress of the government's scheme and suggest new measures for improvement. The Secretary of State for India, F.E. Smith, feared that the Conservative Party in power might lose the election to the Labour Party, and therefore he feared that party members and supporters would be appointed to the commission. Consequently, the commission was hastily appointed, comprising seven members of Parliament to examine the status of the Indian constitution. He also ensured that there were no Indians on the commission, as he believed that Labour MPs and Indian members would vote together. The Viceroy of India, Lord Irwin, also supported the decision to exclude Indians, as he too believed they would vote together with the Labour MPs.

In India, some people were outraged and insulted by the fact that the Simon Commission, which was to determine India's future, had no Indian members. The Indian National Congress passed a resolution at its meeting in Madras (now Chennai) in December 1927 to boycott the commission and challenged the Secretary of State for India, Lord Birkenhead, to draft a constitution acceptable to Indians.

In view of the Congress's opposition, F.E. Smith sought to publicize the commission's meetings with "representative Muslims" in order to "instill in the large Hindu population the fear that the commission was dominated by Muslims and might produce a report highly detrimental to Hindus."

However, opinions were divided; some members of the Muslim League, as well as members of the Hindu Mahasabha and the Central Sikh League, supported cooperation. The Indian Council formed an All-India Committee for cooperation with the Simon Commission, and the Viceroy, Lord Irwin, selected its members. The committee members were: C. S. Naicker (Chairman), Arthur Frum, Nawab Ali Khan, Shivdev Singh Uberoi, Zulfiqar Ali Khan, Hari Singh Gour, Abdullah Al-Mamoon Suhrawardy, Kikabhai Premchand, and Prof. M.C. Raja.

In Burma (now Myanmar), which was also under the purview of the Simon Commission, there were fears that the Burmese union with India would continue, or that the constitution suggested for Burma by the commission would be less liberal than the one chosen for India; these fears led to tension and violence in Burma, culminating in the Saya San Rebellion.

The commission found that untouchables were being denied education and subjected to ill-treatment on the basis of caste.

Lala Lajpat Rai's Opposition to the Simon Commission and His Death

The Simon Commission left England in January 1928. Upon its arrival in Bombay on February 3, 1928, its members were greeted by a large crowd of protesters, although some in the crowd considered it a step towards self-rule. A strike was declared, and many people joined the march, carrying black flags and shouting "Simon, go back!" In Patna, the protests against the Simon Commission were led by M.A. Azazi. Similar protests took place in every major city in India visited by the seven British MPs.

One protest against the Simon Commission became particularly famous. On October 30, 1928, the commission arrived in Lahore, where protesters waving black flags greeted them. This protest was led by the Indian nationalist Lala Lajpat Rai, who had introduced a resolution against the commission in the Punjab Legislative Council in February 1928. The protesters blocked the road to prevent the commission members from leaving the railway station. To clear the way for the commission, the local police, led by Superintendent James Scott, started lathi-charging the protesters. Lala Lajpat Rai was seriously injured, and he died from his head injuries on November 17, 1928.

Quit India Movement: India's fight for freedom | World War II and India's Involvement, The Cripps Mission

 

The Quit India Movement was a movement launched by Mahatma Gandhi on August 8, 1942, during World War II, at the Bombay session of the All India Congress Committee. This movement demanded the end of British rule in India. Following the failure of the British government to secure Indian support for the war effort through the Cripps Mission, Gandhi delivered his 'Do or Die' speech at the Gwalior Tank Maidan in Bombay on August 8, 1942. Viceroy Linlithgow described this movement as the most serious rebellion since 1857.

The All India Congress Committee decided to launch a large-scale non-cooperation movement across the country. Gandhi demanded the 'withdrawal of British forces from India'. Despite the war, Britain was prepared to take action. Within hours of Gandhi's speech, almost all the leaders of the Indian National Congress were arrested without trial. Most spent the rest of the war in prison, cut off from the public. The British government had the support of the Viceroy's Council, the All India Muslim League, the Hindu Mahasabha, the princely states, the Indian Imperial Police, the British Indian Army, and the Indian Civil Service. Many Indian businessmen, who were profiting from the huge war expenditure, did not support the Quit India Movement. Significant support also came from America, where President Franklin D. Roosevelt pressured Prime Minister Winston Churchill to concede some Indian demands.

The movement involved boycotting the British government and refusing to cooperate with them. Numerous violent incidents against British rule occurred across the country. The British government arrested thousands of leaders and imprisoned them until 1945.  Ultimately, the British government realized that ruling India forever was impossible, and the post-war issue became how to withdraw peacefully and with dignity.

The movement ended with the release of the freedom fighters in 1945.  Among the martyrs of this freedom movement were Mukund Kakati, Matangini Hazra, Kanaklata Barua, Kushal Konwar, Bhogeswari Phukanani, and others. In 1992, the Reserve Bank of India issued a commemorative 1-rupee coin to mark the golden jubilee of the Quit India Movement.

World War II and India's Involvement

In 1939, Indian nationalist leaders were angered that the British Governor-General of India, Lord Linlithgow, had dragged India into the war without consulting them.

When the war began, the Congress Party passed a resolution at its Working Committee meeting in Wardha in September 1939, offering conditional support to the fight against the Axis powers, but only on the condition that their demand for independence be granted:

“If the issue is democracy and a world order based on democracy, then India has a deep interest in it. If Great Britain fights to maintain and spread democracy, it must necessarily abolish imperialism in its territories and establish full democracy in India, granting the Indian people the right of self-determination.”

Gandhi did not support this initiative, as he fundamentally disagreed with the very idea of ​​supporting the war (he firmly believed in nonviolent resistance, which had been used in the Indian independence movement, and he supported it against Adolf Hitler, Benito Mussolini, and Hideki Tojo). However, at the height of the British struggle, Gandhi expressed his support for the fight against racism and the British war effort, stating that they did not want to build a free India from the ashes of Britain. However, opinions were divided. Due to the British policy of limiting investment in India and using the country as a market and source of revenue, the Indian army was relatively weak, poorly equipped, and poorly trained, and the British government was forced to contribute to the Indian budget, while taxes were increased dramatically and the cost of living doubled. While some Indian businesses benefited from increased production during the war, businesses generally felt "disrespected" by the government, especially by the British Raj's refusal to give Indians a greater role in organizing and mobilizing the economy for wartime production. Subhas Chandra Bose commented that "the Quit India Movement opened a new chapter in the Indian freedom struggle." After the outbreak of World War II, Bose formed the Indian Legion in Germany, reorganized the Indian National Army with Japanese support, and launched a guerrilla war against the British authorities, seeking assistance from the Axis powers. The Viceroy, Lord Linlithgow, described this movement as "the most serious rebellion since 1857." In a telegram to Winston Churchill on August 31, he wrote:

" Mob violence is common in large areas of the countryside, and I am quite certain that in September we will see a major attempt to disrupt our war effort once again. The lives of Europeans in remote areas are in danger."

When the American Republican presidential candidate Wendell Willkie and YMCA official Sherwood Eddy planned to meet Gandhi, Linlithgow considered it American interference in "our affairs" and asked Churchill to stop them. Indian nationalists knew that the United States supported Indian independence in principle and considered itself an ally. But when Churchill threatened to resign if there was too much pressure, the United States quietly supported him and launched a propaganda campaign against the Indians to boost public support for the war effort. This poorly executed American campaign further alienated the Indians.

The Cripps Mission

In March 1942, amidst growing discontent among Indian soldiers and the general public, and with the war effort in Europe faltering, the British government sent a delegation to India led by Stafford Cripps, the leader of the House of Commons. This mission, known as the Cripps Mission, aimed to secure the full cooperation of the Indian National Congress during the war, in return for transferring and distributing power from the Crown and Viceroy to an elected Indian legislature. The negotiations failed because the Congress's key demands—a timeline for self-government and the specific powers to be transferred—were not addressed.