Bhimrao Ambedkar Biography | Early Life and Education

Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar was an Indian social reformer. He was the chairman of the Drafting Committee of the Constituent Assembly of India, which drafted the Indian Constitution based on a draft prepared by Sir B. N. Rau. Later, he renounced Hinduism, embraced Buddhism, and inspired the Dalit Buddhist movement.

After graduating from Elphinstone College, University of Bombay, Ambedkar studied economics at Columbia University and the London School of Economics, and earned doctoral degrees from both institutions in 1923 and 1927 respectively. He was one of the few Indian students to earn a doctorate from these institutions in the 1920s. In his early career, he was an economist, professor, and lawyer. His later life was dedicated to political activities; he participated in partition talks, published newspapers, advocated for the political rights and social emancipation of Dalits, and contributed to the establishment of the Indian state. In 1956, he converted to Buddhism.

Early Life and Education

Ambedkar was born on April 14, 1891, in the town and military cantonment of Mhow (now officially Dr. Ambedkar Nagar, Madhya Pradesh). He was the 14th and youngest child of Ramji Sakpal, an army officer of the rank of Subedar, and Bhimabai Sakpal, daughter of Laxman Murbadkar. His family was a Marathi family from Ambawe (Mandalgad taluka) in the Ratnagiri district of present-day Maharashtra. Ambedkar's ancestors served in the British East India Company's army for several generations, and his father was employed in the British Indian Army at the Mhow cantonment.

Ambedkar was born into the Mahar (Dalit) caste, who were considered untouchable and faced socio-economic discrimination. Although he attended school, Ambedkar and other untouchable children were segregated and received little attention or help from teachers. They were not allowed to sit in class. When they needed water, a person of a higher caste would pour water into their hands from a height, as they were not allowed to touch the water or the vessel. This task was usually performed by the school peon for Ambedkar, and if the peon was absent, he had to go without water; he later described this situation in his writings as "no peon, no water." He had to sit on a sack, which he would then have to carry home.

Ramji Sakpal retired in 1894, and two years later the family moved to Satara. Shortly after this move, Ambedkar's mother passed away. His aunt took care of the children, and they lived in difficult circumstances. Of Ambedkar's three sons—Balram, Anandrao, and Bhimrao—and two daughters—Manjula and Tulsi—only Ambedkar passed his exams and was able to attend high school. His original surname was Sakpal, but his father registered him at school under the name Ambawadekar, which meant that he was from the village of Ambav in the Ratnagiri district. His Marathi Brahmin teacher, Krishnaji Keshav Ambedkar, later changed his surname in the school records from "Ambawadekar" to "Ambedkar."

Education

In 1897, Ambedkar's family moved to Bombay. There, Ambedkar became the only Dalit student to be admitted to Elphinstone High School. In 1906, when he was about 15 years old, he was married to nine-year-old Ramabai, an arranged marriage according to the customs of the time.

In 1907, he passed his matriculation examination, and the following year he enrolled at Elphinstone College, affiliated with the University of Bombay. He claimed to be the first member of his Mahar community to do so. When he passed the fourth-grade English examination, his community celebrated, considering it a "great achievement," though he himself remarked that "it was nothing special compared to the educational level of other communities." To celebrate his success, the community organized a public function, and on that occasion, he was presented with a biography of Buddha, written by Dada Keluskar, a family friend and author.

By 1912, he had earned a degree in Economics and Political Science from the University of Bombay and was preparing to take a job with the Baroda state government. His wife had recently joined him and they had begun their married life, when he had to return to Bombay suddenly to see his ailing father, who died on February 2, 1913.

In 1913, at the age of 22, Ambedkar was awarded a Baroda State Scholarship of £11.50 (sterling) per month for three years under a scheme initiated by Sayajirao Gaekwad III (the Gaekwad of Baroda). The scheme aimed to provide opportunities for postgraduate education at Columbia University in New York City. Immediately upon arriving there, he began living with a Parsi named Naval Bhatena in Livingston Hall, who later became his lifelong friend. He earned his Master's degree in June 1915, majoring in Economics and Sociology, History, Philosophy, and Anthropology. He submitted a thesis titled "Ancient Indian Trade." Ambedkar was influenced by John Dewey and his work on democracy. In 1916, he completed his second master's thesis, "The National Dividend of India—A Historical and Analytical Study," and received his second MA degree. On May 9, he presented a paper titled "Castes in India: Their Mechanism, Genesis and Development" at a seminar conducted by anthropologist Alexander Goldenweiser. Ambedkar earned his PhD in Economics from Columbia University in 1927.

In October 1916, he enrolled in the Bar course at Gray's Inn and also enrolled at the London School of Economics, where he began working on his doctoral thesis. In June 1917, he returned to India as his scholarship from Baroda had ended. The ship carrying his books was destroyed by a German submarine. He was permitted to return to London within four years to submit his thesis. He soon returned and completed his doctoral degree in 1921. His thesis was on "The Rupee Problem: Its Origin and Its Solution." In 1923, he completed his D.Sc. degree in Economics.

Human disease - Concepts, Primary illness, Secondary illness

 

A disease is a specific abnormal condition that adversely affects the structure or function of all or part of an organism and is not immediately caused by external injury. Diseases are often considered medical conditions associated with specific signs and symptoms. Diseases can be caused by external factors such as pathogens or internal problems. For example, internal problems with the immune system can lead to a variety of different illnesses, including immunodeficiency, hypersensitivity, allergies, and various forms of autoimmune disorders.

In humans, the term disease is often used to describe any condition that causes pain, discomfort, distress, social problems, or death to the affected individual, or to those in contact with that individual. In this broad sense, it sometimes includes injuries, disabilities, disorders, syndromes, infections, various symptoms, abnormal behaviors, and unusual changes in structure and function, while in other cases and for other purposes, these may be considered distinct categories. Diseases can affect people not only physically but also mentally, as suffering from and living with a disease can change a person's outlook on life.

Death due to disease is called death from natural causes. There are four main types of disease: infectious diseases, deficiency diseases, hereditary diseases, and physiological diseases. Diseases can also be classified in other ways, such as communicable and non-communicable diseases. The most fatal diseases in humans are ischemic heart disease (blockage of blood flow), followed by stroke and COPD (lung disease). In developed countries, the diseases that cause the most illness are neuropsychiatric conditions, such as depression and anxiety.

Pathology, the study of disease, includes the study of etiology, or causes.

Concept

In many cases, the terms disease, disorder, morbidity, sickness, and illness are used interchangeably; however, there are situations when certain terms are considered preferable.

Disease

The term disease broadly refers to any condition that disrupts the body's normal functioning. Therefore, diseases are associated with a malfunction of the body's normal homeostatic processes. Generally, the term is used specifically for infectious diseases, which are clinically evident illnesses caused by the presence of pathogenic microbial agents such as viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, multicellular organisms, and abnormal proteins called prions. Infections or colonizations that do not cause clinically evident disruptions to normal functioning, such as the presence of normal bacteria and yeast in the intestine, or passenger viruses, are not considered diseases. In contrast, an infection that is asymptomatic during its incubation period, but is expected to develop symptoms later, is generally considered a disease. Non-infectious diseases are all other diseases, including most cancers, heart disease, and genetic diseases.

Acquired Disease

An acquired disease is one that begins at some point in one's life; in contrast, a disease that is present from birth is called a congenital disease. Acquired may sound like it means "contagious," but it simply means acquired sometime after birth. It may also sound like it could mean a secondary disease, but an acquired disease can also be a primary disease.

Acute Illness

An acute illness is one that lasts for a short period of time (acute); this term can sometimes also mean a severe illness.

Chronic Condition or Chronic Disease

A chronic illness is one that persists over time, often for at least six months, but can also include illnesses that are expected to last a lifetime.

Congenital Disorder or Congenital Disease

A congenital disorder is one that is present at birth. It is often a genetic disease or disorder and may be inherited. It may also be the result of an infection transmitted directly from the mother, such as HIV/AIDS.

Genetic Disease

A genetic disorder or disease is caused by one or more genetic mutations. It is often inherited, but some mutations are random and new. Hereditary or Inherited Disease

A hereditary disease is a type of genetic disease caused by genetic mutations that are inherited (and can run in families).

Iatrogenic Disease

An iatrogenic disease or condition is one that results from medical intervention, whether as a side effect of treatment or an unintentional consequence.

Idiopathic Disease

The cause or source of an idiopathic disease is unknown. As medical science has advanced, many diseases with a completely unknown cause have had some aspects of their origin understood and therefore lost their idiopathic status. For example, when germs were discovered, it was discovered that they were caused by infections, but specific germs and diseases were not linked. In another example, it is known that autoimmunity causes some forms of diabetes mellitus type 1, although the specific molecular pathways through which this works are still not understood. It is also common to find that certain factors are associated with certain diseases; however, association does not necessarily imply causation. For example, a third factor may cause both the disease and its associated event.

Terminal Illness

A disease that cannot be cured. Terminal illnesses are not necessarily life-threatening, and sometimes the symptoms can be treated so that the disease has little or no impact on quality of life.

Primary Illness

A primary illness is an illness caused by the underlying cause of the disease, while a secondary illness is a sequela or complication resulting from the primary illness. For example, the common cold is a primary illness, while rhinitis could be a potential secondary illness or sequela. The doctor must determine which primary illness, cold, or bacterial infection is causing the patient's secondary rhinitis in order to prescribe antibiotics.

Secondary Illness

A secondary illness is a sequela or complication of a previous, underlying illness, which is called the primary illness or simply the root cause. For example, a bacterial infection can be primary, in which a healthy person comes into contact with the bacteria and becomes infected, or it can be secondary to a primary cause, which prepares the body for infection. For example, a primary viral infection that weakens the immune system can lead to a secondary bacterial infection. Similarly, a primary burn that creates an open wound can become an entry point for bacteria, leading to a secondary bacterial infection.

Environment of India - Geography, Issues and Climate Change

 

India's environment includes some of the world's most biodiverse ecozones. The Deccan Traps, the Gangetic Plains, and the Himalayas are the main geographic regions. The country faces various forms of pollution as its main environmental issue and, as a developing country, is more vulnerable to the effects of climate change. India has laws to protect the environment and is one of the countries that has signed the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) Treaty. The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change and the Forest Departments of each state plan and implement environmental policies across the country.

India has some of the world's most biodiverse ecozones—deserts, high mountains, highlands, tropical and temperate forests, wetlands, plains, grasslands, riverine areas, and an island archipelago. It has three biodiversity hotspots: the Western Ghats, the Himalayas, and the Indo-Burma region. These hotspots contain numerous endemic species.

In 2021, approximately 713,789 km2 of land in the country was under forest cover, 92% of which was government owned. Only 22.7% of the land was forested, compared to the 33% recommended by the National Forest Policy Resolution (1952). Most of this cover is broadleaf deciduous trees, with one-sixth being sal and one-tenth being teak. Coniferous species are found in the northern highlands and include pine, juniper, and cedar.

India has 350 species of mammals, 375 species of reptiles, 130 species of amphibians, 20,000 species of insects, 19,000 species of fish, and 1,200 species of birds. The Asiatic lion, Bengal tiger, and leopard are the main predators; the country has the largest number of cat species than any other country. Elephants, Indian rhinoceroses, and eight species of deer are also found.

India has over 17,000 species of flowering plants, representing six percent of the world's total plant species. India also contains seven percent of the world's flora. India's diverse climatic conditions have contributed to a rich variety of flora. India has over 45,000 species of flora, many of which are endemic to the region. India is divided into eight main floristic regions: North-Western Himalayas, Eastern Himalayas, Assam, Indus Plain, Gangetic Plain, Deccan, Malabar and Andaman.

Geography

India lies on the Indian Plate, which is the northern part of the Indo-Australian Plate, whose continental crust forms the Indian subcontinent. The country lies north of the equator, between 8°4' and 37°6' north latitude and 68°7' and 97°25' east longitude. It is the seventh-largest country in the world, with a total area of ​​3,287,263 square kilometers (1,269,219 mi). India is 3,214 km (1,997 mi) long from north to south and 2,933 km (1,822 mi) long from east to west. It has a land border of 15,200 km (9,445 mi) and a coastline of 7,517 km (4,671 mi).

Four observations suggest that the Indian Plate and Eurasia collided 40 to 60 million years ago. One of these is that India has no mammal fossil record prior to about 50 million years ago. On its way, the Indian Plate passed over the Reunion hotspot, triggering volcanic activity that formed the Deccan Traps. Its collision with the Eurasian Plate gave rise to the Himalayas, and continued tectonic activity continues to make it an earthquake-prone region. The Gangetic Plain was formed by the Ganges and its tributaries depositing sediment in the area between the Himalayas and the Vindhya Range. The rock formations can be divided into Archean, Proterozoic (Dharwar System), Cuddapah System, Vindhyan System, Gondwana System, the Deccan Traps, Tertiary System, Pleistocene Period, and Recent formations.

Climate encompasses a wide variety of weather conditions across a large geographic scale and varied topography, making it difficult to make generalizations. Given India's size, bordered by the Himalayas, the Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal, and the Indian Ocean, the distribution of temperature and rainfall across the subcontinent varies greatly. Based on the Köppen system, which considers average monthly temperature, average monthly precipitation, and average annual precipitation, India hosts six major climate subtypes, ranging from arid deserts in the west, alpine tundra and glaciers in the north, and humid tropical regions supporting rainforests in the southwest and island regions. Many regions have distinct microclimates. The India Meteorological Department divides the seasons into four parts: winter (mid-December to mid-March), summer (mid-March to May), rainy season (June to September), and the retreating monsoon season (October to mid-December).

Issues

Pollution is one of the major environmental issues in India.

Water pollution is a major concern in the country. The main sources of water pollution are domestic, industrial, agricultural, and shipping wastewater. The largest source of water pollution in India is untreated sewage. Other sources of pollution include agricultural runoff and unregulated small-scale industries. Most rivers, lakes, and surface water are polluted.

Land Pollution: The main causes of soil (or land) pollution are soil erosion, excessive use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, accumulation of solid and liquid waste, forest fires, and waterlogging. This can be reduced by judicious use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides and by treating wastewater before use for irrigation. Due to a growing population and increasing consumption of food grains, more and more rain-fed croplands are being irrigated using ground and surface water. Irrigated land is gradually losing its fertility, turning into saline, alkaline soil.

Air pollution is another concern in the country. A major source of this is matter emitted from the burning of fossil fuels. Particles in the air, such as soot, smoke, and dust, can be harmful depending on the chemical and physical composition of the pollutants. They can affect the climate and reduce the scattering of solar radiation in the atmosphere.

Noise pollution: This can be described as a state of discomfort or stress caused by unwanted high-intensity sound. It increases in proportion to urbanization and industrialization.

Circular Economy and Waste Management

India is on the path to adopting circular economy techniques to address the growing challenges of waste management in a growing country. The country generates approximately 62 million tons of solid waste annually, of which only 75% is collected and 20% is processed. In an effort to address plastic waste, the government banned single-use plastics by 2022 and established EPR frameworks for e-waste and packaging material management. Initiatives like the Swachh Bharat Mission have led to a dramatic increase in waste collection in metropolitan and urban areas, but material segregation remains inadequate, and informal recycling systems remain hampered.

Good examples include Indore's waste segregation and recycling programs, which have made it India's cleanest city. Corporations are adopting circular practices by recycling steel scrap, while rural areas are engaging in community composting. Waste-to-energy plants, although underutilized, offer a potential solution for non-recyclable waste. However, scaling up these models requires better infrastructure, public awareness, and greater investment in technology.

Climate Change

As a developing country, India is more vulnerable to the impacts of climate change because it relies on climate-sensitive sectors such as agriculture and forestry. Low per capita income and a small public budget also reduce financial adjustment capacity. The country is vulnerable to the immediate socio-economic impacts of climate change. A 2002 study found that the country's temperature increased by approximately 0.57°C every 100 years.

Weak infrastructure also means that people are more exposed to climate change and less resilient. For example, as of 2015, only 124 million Indians were connected to sewers and 297 million to septic tanks. The rest rely on pit latrines or open defecation, posing a significant risk of waterborne diseases during floods – which will become more frequent and severe with climate change. These risks are more acute in urban areas, where high populations mean basic infrastructure options may not be adequate. Furthermore, many of India's largest cities are located in floodplains and deltas, making them highly vulnerable to climate hazards such as sea-level rise, storm surges, and cyclones.

Although India still has a low average per capita income, the country is now the third-largest emitter of greenhouse gas emissions, after China and the USA. The central government has pledged to reduce the emissions intensity of gross domestic product by 20-25% by 2020 compared to 2005 levels. India has also made significant commitments to expand its renewable energy supply, improve energy efficiency, build mass transit, and take other measures to reduce its emissions. There is evidence that many of these climate actions could yield significant benefits beyond reducing India's carbon footprint. Many low-carbon measures are economically attractive, including more efficient air conditioners, parking demand management, gasification, and vehicle performance standards. Others also offer social benefits: for example, if countries promoted renewable energy technologies over fossil fuels and walking/cycling/public transport over private vehicles, air quality in Indian cities could improve significantly.

Western education : Pre-contemporary history outside the West

Western education is a method of education that originated in or is primarily characteristic of the Western world.

History

Ancient era

This section is part of the topic of classical education.

Classical education refers to an ancient method of teaching that has its roots in ancient Greece and Rome, where the foundations of Western intellectual and cultural life were laid. Essentially, classical education is based on the study of the liberal arts, which historically included the trivium (grammar, rhetoric, and logic) and the quadrivium (arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy). This educational model aimed to develop well-rounded individuals equipped with the knowledge and skills necessary to participate in public life, think critically, and cultivate moral and intellectual virtues.

In ancient Greece, the classical curriculum emerged from the educational practices of philosophers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, who emphasized dialectical reasoning and the search for truth. The Roman Empire adopted and adapted these Greek educational ideals, emphasizing the development of rhetoric and speaking skills, which were considered essential for participation in civic life. As these classical ideas were preserved and developed during the Middle Ages, they became the foundation of the educational systems that emerged in Europe, particularly in monastic and cathedral schools.

The Renaissance marked a major shift in classical education, as scholars in Europe rediscovered and embraced the texts and ideas of antiquity. Humanists of this period promoted the study of classical languages, literature, and philosophy, believing them essential to the formation of good and informed citizens. This shift continued into the Age of Enlightenment, where classical education played a key role in shaping intellectual movements that emphasized reason, individualism, and secularism.

Despite significant changes over the centuries, classical education has maintained a lasting influence on Western thought and educational methods. Today, its legacy can be seen in the curriculum of liberal arts colleges, the revival of classical Christian education, and ongoing debates about the need for classical studies in a modern, globalized world.

Modern era

This section is an excerpt from Progressive education.

Progressive education or educational progressivism, is a pedagogical movement that began in the late 19th century and has persisted in various forms to the present. In Europe, progressive education took the form of the New Education Movement. The term progressive was engaged to distinguish this education from the traditional curricula of the 19th century, which was rooted in classical preparation for the early-industrial university and strongly differentiated by social class. By contrast, progressive education finds its roots in modern, post-industrial experience. Most progressive education programs have these qualities in common:

Emphasis on learning by doing – hands-on projects, expeditionary learning, experiential learning

Integrated curriculum focused on thematic units

Strong emphasis on problem solving and critical thinking

Group work and development of social skills

Understanding and action as the goals of learning as opposed to rote knowledge

Collaborative and cooperative learning projects

Education for social responsibility and democracy

Integration of community service and service learning projects into the daily curriculum

Selection of subject content by looking forward to ask what skills will be needed in future society

De-emphasis on textbooks in favor of varied learning resources

Emphasis on lifelong learning and social skills

Assessment by evaluation of child's projects and productions

Pre-contemporary history outside the West

The introduction of Western education to the rest of the world was largely through imperialism. This influenced how Western education was adopted and impacted the world.

Africa

This section is part of 'Education in Africa & Overview of Education in Colonial Africa'.

With the beginning of the colonial period in the 19th century, traditional African education began to decline as the primary mode of education. European military forces, missionaries, and colonizers were all willing and able to modify existing traditions to meet their needs and desires. Colonial powers like Spain, Portugal, Belgium, and France established colonies on the continent without establishing any educational systems. Because the primary focus of colonization was to profit from the commercial colonial economy, cash crop production, and raw material extraction, other physically demanding jobs were prioritized. These economies did not grow to the point of requiring more skill or labor; therefore, there was a greater demand for more demanding labor, while those requiring less skill were more demanding. Due to these circumstances, there was little demand for educating or training the colonized population. Asia

East Asia

In China, when reformers were trying to cope with foreign influence in the late 19th century, they decided to reorganize Chinese society through a process of self-consolidation, which included the adoption of ideas from the West.

Even before the Edo period, Japan had developed considerable contact with Western knowledge through Rangaku (Dutch learning). While maintaining its isolationist sakoku policy, Japan permitted limited trade with the Dutch East India Company at Dejima, Nagasaki. This unique arrangement allowed Japanese scholars to study Western medicine, astronomy, mathematics, and other sciences through Dutch books and interaction with Dutch traders. Rangaku scholars such as Sugita Genpaku and Maeno Ryotaku produced groundbreaking translations of Dutch medical texts, including the influential "Kaitai Shinsho" (New Book of Anatomy), which introduced Western medical knowledge to Japan. This early exposure to Western learning through the Dutch connection laid an important foundation for Japan's later modernization efforts during the Meiji era, when Japan sought to further modernize itself by learning from the West. It sent scholars and diplomats to Western countries to learn from their educational systems.

South Asia

This section covers the history of education in the Indian subcontinent and the colonial era.

The Jesuits introduced India to both the European college system and book printing by establishing St. Paul's College in Goa in 1542. French traveler François Pyrard de Laval, who visited Goa around 1608, described St. Paul's College and praised the wide range of subjects offered there for free. Like many other European travelers who visited the college, he reported that it had 3,000 students at the time, drawn from missions across Asia. Its library was one of the largest in Asia, and the first printing press in the region was installed there in September 1556.

The British began colonizing India in the late 18th century and began imposing Western education by the early 19th century. They considered this a very positive step, feeling it was a way to civilize the people. Native kings and princes also sometimes took such education to understand how to deal with the British threat.

World War II - Start and end dates and Background of the war.

 

World War II (September 1, 1939 – September 2, 1945) was a global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies and the Axis Powers. Nearly every nation in the world participated, and many mobilized their resources for total war. Tanks and aircraft played a major role, the latter enabling the strategic bombing of cities and the delivery of the only nuclear weapons used in warfare. World War II is the deadliest conflict in history, killing over 60 million people. Millions more died in massacres, including the Holocaust, and from genocide, starvation, and disease. Following the Allied victory, Germany, Austria, Japan, and Korea were occupied, and German and Japanese leaders were tried for war crimes.

The causes of World War II included unresolved tensions following World War I, and the rise of fascism in Europe and militarism in Japan. Key events leading up to the war included Japan's invasion of Manchuria in 1931, the Spanish Civil War, the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, and Germany's occupation of Austria and the Sudetenland. World War II is generally considered to have begun on September 1, 1939, when Nazi Germany, led by Adolf Hitler, invaded Poland, prompting the United Kingdom and France to declare war on Germany. In mid-September, the Soviet Union also invaded Poland, and it was partitioned between Germany and the Soviet Union under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. In 1940, the Soviet Union occupied the Baltic countries and parts of Finland and Romania, while Germany occupied Norway, Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands. After the fall of France in June 1940, the war continued primarily between Germany, now aided by Fascist Italy, and the British Empire/British Commonwealth, with fighting in the Balkans, the Mediterranean and Middle East, East Africa, the aerial Battle of Britain and the Blitz, and the naval Battle of the Atlantic. By mid-1941, Yugoslavia and Greece had also fallen to the Axis. In June 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union, opening the Eastern Front and initially occupying large areas alongside Axis allies.

In December 1941, Japan attacked American and British territories in Asia and the Pacific, including Pearl Harbor in Hawaii, leading the United States to join the war against the Axis. Japan conquered coastal China and much of Southeast Asia, but its advance in the Pacific was halted at the Battle of Midway in June 1942. In early 1943, Axis forces were defeated in North Africa and at Stalingrad in the Soviet Union. In July, the Allied invasion of Italy ended its fascist regime, and Allied attacks in the Pacific and the Soviet Union forced Axis forces to retreat on all fronts. In 1944, the Western Allies invaded France at Normandy, and the Soviet Union advanced in Central Europe. Meanwhile, Japan suffered major setbacks, including the weakening of its navy by the United States, the loss of key islands in the Western Pacific, and defeats in South-Central China and Burma.

The war in Europe ended with the liberation of German-occupied territories and the Allied invasion of Germany, resulting in the capture of Berlin by Soviet troops and Germany's unconditional surrender on May 8, 1945. On August 6 and 9, the US dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan. Faced with the threat of Allied attack and the possibility of atomic bombing, and the Soviet Union's declaration of war and invasion of Manchuria, Japan announced its unconditional surrender on 15 August, and signed the surrender document on 2 September 1945.

World War II transformed the world's political, economic, and social structure, laying the foundation for international relations for the rest of the 20th century and into the 21st. The United Nations was created to promote international cooperation and prevent future conflicts, with the victorious major powers—China, France, the Soviet Union, the UK, and the US—becoming permanent members of its Security Council. The Soviet Union and the US emerged as rival superpowers, leading to the Cold War that lasted half a century. Following the devastation of Europe, the influence of its major powers diminished, leading to the decolonization of Africa and Asia. Many countries whose industries had suffered losses embarked on economic recovery and expansion.

Start and end dates

Most historians agree that World War II began with the German invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939, and the United Kingdom and France's declaration of war on Germany two days later. Other proposed start dates for the Pacific War include the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War on July 7, 1937, or the first Japanese invasion of Manchuria on September 18, 1931. Other proposed start dates for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on October 3, 1935. British historian Antony Beevor places the beginning of World War II at the Battles of Khalkhin Gol, fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939. Others consider the Spanish Civil War to be the beginning or the beginning of World War II.

There is also disagreement on the exact date the war ended. At the time, it was generally believed that the war ended with the armistice of August 15, 1945 (V-J Day), rather than with Japan's formal surrender on September 2, 1945, which officially ended the war in Asia. A peace treaty was signed between Japan and the Allies in 1951. A 1990 treaty on the future of Germany allowed East and West Germany to be reunited. No formal peace treaty was ever signed between Japan and the Soviet Union, although the state of war between the two countries was ended by the 1956 Soviet–Japanese Joint Declaration, which also restored full diplomatic relations between them.

Background of the war

After World War I

World War I completely altered the political map of Europe with the defeat of the Central Powers – Austria-Hungary, Germany, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire – and the Bolshevik seizure of power in Russia in 1917, creating the Soviet Union. Meanwhile, victorious World War I allies, such as France, Belgium, Italy, Romania, and Greece, gained territory, and the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian empires led to the formation of new nation-states.

To prevent a future world war, the Paris Peace Conference of 1920 established the League of Nations. The organization's primary goals were to prevent armed conflict through collective security, military and naval disarmament, and the resolution of international disputes through peaceful negotiations and arbitration.

Despite strong pacifist sentiment after World War I, irredentist and revanchist nationalism emerged in many European countries. These sentiments were particularly strong in Germany, as the Treaty of Versailles had resulted in significant territorial, colonial, and financial losses. Under the treaty, Germany lost approximately 13 percent of its territory and all of its foreign lands, while German occupation of other countries was prohibited, reparations were imposed, and limits were placed on the size and capabilities of the country's military.

Germany and Italy

The German Revolution of 1918–1919 ended the German Empire, and a democratic government was established, later known as the Weimar Republic. The interwar period was marked by conflict between supporters of the new republic and staunch opponents on both the political right and left. Italy, as an Entente ally, had gained some territorial gains after the war; however, Italian nationalists were angry that the promises made by the United Kingdom and France to Italy upon Italy's entry into the war were not fulfilled in the peace settlement. From 1922 to 1925, the Fascist movement, led by Benito Mussolini, seized power in Italy with a nationalist, totalitarian, and class collaborative agenda that abolished representative democracy, suppressed socialist, left-wing, and liberal forces, and pursued an aggressive expansionist foreign policy aimed at making Italy a world power, promising to create a "New Roman Empire".

After a failed attempt to overthrow the German government in 1923, Adolf Hitler finally became Chancellor of Germany in 1933 when President Paul von Hindenburg and the Reichstag appointed him. After Hindenburg's death in 1934, Hitler declared himself Führer of Germany and abolished democracy, supporting a radical, racially motivated change in the world order, and soon launched a massive rearmament campaign. France, in an attempt to cement its alliance with Italy, gave Italy free rein in Ethiopia, which Italy wanted as a colonial possession. The situation worsened in early 1935 when the Saar Basin region was legally reintegrated into Germany, and Hitler rejected the Treaty of Versailles, accelerated his rearmament program, and began conscription.

World War I - the beginning of the destruction of the world

The First World War, or the First World War (July 28, 1914 – November 11, 1918), also known as the Great War, was a global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers. The main areas of conflict included Europe and the Middle East, as well as parts of Africa and the Asia-Pacific. The conflict saw significant developments in weapons such as tanks, aircraft, artillery, machine guns, and chemical weapons. One of the bloodiest conflicts in history, it resulted in approximately 30 million military casualties and 8 million civilian deaths from war-related causes and genocide. The movement of large numbers of people was a major factor in the deadly Spanish flu pandemic.

The causes of World War I included the rise of the German Empire and the decline of the Ottoman Empire, which disrupted the long-standing balance of power in Europe, exacerbated imperial rivalries, and triggered an arms race between the major powers. Rising tensions in the Balkans reached a peak on June 28, 1914, when Bosnian Serb Gavrilo Princip assassinated Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne. Austria-Hungary blamed Serbia and declared war on July 28. After Russia came to Serbia's defense, Germany declared war on Russia and France, who had formed an alliance. The United Kingdom joined the war after Germany invaded Belgium, and the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers in November. Germany's strategy in 1914 was to quickly defeat France and then send its army eastward. However, its advance was halted in September, and by the end of the year, the Western Front consisted of a nearly continuous line of trenches from the English Channel to Switzerland. The Eastern Front was more fortified, but despite costly offensives, neither side achieved significant gains. Italy, Bulgaria, Romania, Greece and other countries joined the war from 1915 onwards.

Major battles such as Verdun, the Somme, and Passchendaele failed to break the logjam on the Western Front. In April 1917, after Germany resumed unrestrained submarine warfare against Atlantic shipping, the United States joined the Allies. Later that year, the Bolsheviks seized power in Russia in the October Revolution; Soviet Russia signed an armistice with the Central Powers in December, followed by a separate peace treaty in March 1918. That month, Germany launched a Spring Offensive in the west, which, despite initial successes, exhausted and demoralized the German army. The Allied Hundred Days Offensive, which began in August 1918, led to the collapse of the German front line. Following the Vardar Offensive, Bulgaria signed an armistice in late September. By early November, the Allies had signed armistices with the Ottomans and Austria-Hungary, leaving Germany isolated. Facing revolution at home, Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated on November 9, and the war ended with the Armistice of November 11, 1918.

The Paris Peace Conference of 1919-1920 imposed compromises on the defeated powers. Under the Treaty of Versailles, Germany lost considerable territory, was stripped of its weapons, and was required to pay substantial war reparations to the Allies. The collapse of the Russian, German, Austro-Hungarian, and Ottoman empires created new national boundaries and led to the creation of newly independent countries such as Poland, Finland, the Baltic countries, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia. The League of Nations was established to maintain world peace, but its failure to manage the instability of the interwar period contributed to the outbreak of World War II in 1939.

Before World War II, the events of 1914–1918 were commonly referred to as the Great War or simply the World War. In August 1914, The Independent said of the conflict, "This is the Great War. It deserves its own name." Ten years after its end, many expected it to be "the war to end all wars" because of its immense destruction and high death toll. The term First World War was first used in September 1914, when German biologist and philosopher Ernst Haeckel wrote that the ongoing "European War" would become "the first world war in the full sense of the word."

Background to the War

Political and Military Alliances

For most of the 19th century, the major European powers maintained a tenuous balance of power known as the Concert of Europe. After 1848, this was challenged by Britain's descent into splendid isolation, the decline of the Ottoman Empire, New Imperialism, and the rise of Prussia under Otto von Bismarck. Victory in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871 allowed Bismarck to consolidate a German Empire. After 1871, French policy aimed to avenge this defeat and expand France's colonial empire.

In 1873, Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors, comprising Austria-Hungary, Russia, and Germany. After the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878, the League was dissolved due to Austrian concerns about growing Russian influence in the Balkans, an area they considered of vital strategic interest. Germany and Austria-Hungary formed the Dual Alliance in 1879, which became the Triple Alliance when Italy joined in 1882. For Bismarck, the purpose of these agreements was to isolate France so that the three empires could resolve any disputes among themselves. In 1887, Bismarck created the Reinsurance Treaty, a secret agreement between Germany and Russia that would remain neutral if either France or Austria-Hungary were attacked.

For Bismarck, peace with Russia was the foundation of German foreign policy, but in 1890, Wilhelm II forced him to retire. The latter was persuaded by his new Chancellor, Leo von Caprivi, not to renew the Reinsurance Treaty. This led France to agree to the Franco-Russian Alliance in 1894, followed by the Entente Cordiale with Britain in 1904. The Triple Entente was completed by the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907. Although these were not formal alliances, by resolving long-standing colonial disputes in Asia and Africa, British support for either France or Russia in any future conflict became a possibility. This was further exacerbated by British and Russian support for France against Germany during the Agadir Crisis of 1911.

Germany's economic and industrial power continued to grow rapidly after 1871. With the support of Wilhelm II, Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz used this growth to build an Imperial German Navy that could rival the British Royal Navy. This policy was based on the work of US naval author Alfred Thayer Mahan, who argued that a blue-water navy was essential to projecting power worldwide; Tirpitz had his books translated into German, while Wilhelm made them mandatory reading for his advisors and senior military staff.

Bismarck opposed any attempt to compete with the Royal Navy, believing that Britain would not interfere in Europe as long as its maritime dominance was secure. His removal in 1890 led to a change in policy and an arms race between the Anglo-German navies. Despite the enormous sums spent by Tirpitz, the launch of HMS Dreadnought in 1906 rendered every existing battleship obsolete, giving the British a technological advantage they never relinquished. Ultimately, Germany invested enormous resources in building a navy large enough to trouble Britain, but could not defeat it. In 1911, Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg conceded defeat, leading to the Rüstungswende, or 'turning point on armaments,' when he shifted spending from the navy to the army.

This decision was driven by German concerns about the speed of Russia's recovery following its defeat in the Russo-Japanese War and the subsequent Russian Revolution of 1905. Economic reforms led to a significant expansion of railway and transportation infrastructure after 1908, especially along its western border. Since Germany and Austria-Hungary relied on rapid mobilization to compensate for their numerical weakness compared to Russia, the threat posed by closing this gap was more important than confronting the Royal Navy. In 1913, Germany increased its standing army by 170,000 men, followed by France's extension of compulsory military service from two to three years, prompting similar measures from the Balkan countries, Italy, the Ottoman Empire, and Austria-Hungary. Accurate figures are difficult to calculate due to differences in expenditure categories, which often exclude civilian infrastructure projects, such as railways, which had logistical significance and military applications. However, from 1908 to 1913, military expenditures for the six major European powers actually increased by more than 50%.

 

Early childhood education

 

Early Childhood Education (ECE), also known as nursery education, is a branch of education theory that deals with the education of children (both formally and informally) from birth to the age of eight. Traditionally, this corresponds to the third grade. Early Childhood Education is considered a crucial period in a child's development.

Early Childhood Education emerged as a field of study during the Enlightenment, particularly in European countries with high literacy rates. It continued to grow in the nineteenth century as universal primary education became the norm in the Western world. In recent years, early childhood education has become a common public policy issue, as municipal, state, and federal lawmakers debate funding for preschool and pre-K. Governing bodies are also debating the central focus of early childhood education, focusing on developmentally appropriate play versus a robust academic preparation curriculum in reading, writing, and math. The global priority given to early childhood education is further emphasized by the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 4. However, by 2023, "only 4 in 10 children aged 3 and 4 worldwide receive early childhood education." Furthermore, participation levels vary greatly across regions. "In Latin America and the Caribbean, approximately 2 in 3 children receive ECE, while in South Asia, approximately half of children and in sub-Saharan Africa, only 1 in 4 children receive ECE." Following the Convention on the Rights of the Child in the 1990s, all Latin American countries enacted laws in accordance with the provisions of this international convention, and the state assumed responsibility for the right to education for the youngest children.

ECE is also a professional designation obtained through post-secondary education programs. For example, in Ontario, Canada, the ECE (Early Childhood Educator) and RECE (Registered Early Childhood Educator) designations can only be used by registered members of the College of Early Childhood Educators, which is composed of accredited child care professionals and is responsible for the College's Standards of Practice.

Research shows that early childhood education has significant positive short-term and long-term effects on the children who attend it, and the costs are far outweighed by the benefits education programs bring to society.

According to the OECD, investing in high-quality early childhood education and care (ECEC) is a cost-effective way to significantly improve children's cognitive, social, and emotional development. Skills learned at an early age provide a foundation for later learning and maximize the impact of subsequent educational investments.

Theories of Child Development

The developmental interaction approach is based on the theories of Jean Piaget, Erik Erikson, John Dewey, and Lucy Sprague Mitchell. This approach focuses on learning through discovery. Jean-Jacques Rousseau suggested that teachers should take advantage of each child's preferences to ensure that each child receives the information most important for their personal and individual development. The five developmental domains of childhood development include:

Physical: the way in which a child develops biological and physical functions, including eyesight and motor skills

Social: the way in which a child interacts with others Children develop an understanding of their responsibilities and rights as members of families and communities, as well as an ability to relate to and work with others.

Emotional: The way a child forms emotional connections and develops self-confidence. Emotional connections develop when children connect with other people and share feelings.

Language: The way a child communicates, including how they express their feelings and emotions to others and themselves. At 3 months of age, children make different sounds for different needs. By 6 months of age, they can recognize and imitate the basic sounds of spoken language. In the first 3 years, children need exposure to communication with others to learn language. "Normal" language development is measured by the rate of vocabulary acquisition.

Cognitive skills: The way a child organizes information. Cognitive skills include problem-solving, creativity, imagination, and memory. These reflect the way children understand the world. Piaget believed that children show major differences in their thinking patterns as they move through stages of cognitive development: the sensorimotor period, the pre-operational period, and the operational period.

To meet those developmental domains, a child has certain needs that must be met for learning to occur. Maslow's hierarchy of needs shows different levels of needs that must be met; the chart to the right illustrates these needs.

Agricultural Development in India | History of Indian Agriculture

 

Agriculture refers to crop production and animal husbandry. India's economy is based on agriculture. Agriculture has been practiced in India for approximately 10,000 years. That is why India is called an agricultural country. However, it is fair to say that real agricultural development in India began with the Green Revolution of the 1960s, led by Dr. M.S. Swaminathan. Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru and Dr. A.B. Joshi played a key role in bringing the Green Revolution to India. Since then, India has established a strong agricultural infrastructure, and today India has all the necessary technologies available.

History of Indian Agriculture

India has a rich agricultural tradition. Historians' research shows that even during the Indus Valley Civilization, agriculture was the backbone of India's economy.

During the Vedic period, sowing and harvesting were practiced. Tools such as plows, sickles, and sieves were used, and various grains such as wheat, rice, and barley were cultivated. Ancient India is also credited with establishing the tradition of increasing soil fertility through the system of cyclic fallow. According to Romesberg (the father of European botany), this system was later adopted in the Western world.

During research on the Indus Valley Civilization, excavations in Kantha have uncovered abundant evidence that agriculture was highly advanced approximately five thousand years ago. Revenue was paid in grain, a conclusion drawn by literary scholars and archaeologists based on the extensive granaries excavated at Mohenjo-daro. Furthermore, samples of wheat and barley recovered during excavations confirm their presence as staple crops at that time.

Kautilya's Arthashastra describes the appointment of agricultural officials to promote agriculture and agricultural production during the Mauryan period. The Greek traveler Megasthenes also wrote that the king appointed officials to ensure equitable distribution of water in the main canal and its branches, and to inspect rivers and wells.

Indian agriculture suffered the most adverse effects before India's independence. During this period, the Indian economy was exploited and fell prey to British self-interest, and its consequences were felt across all sectors. Indeed, this was a period of exploitation of the Indian agricultural sector, resulting in a worsening of agricultural conditions.

After independence, until the mid-1960s, agriculture in India used traditional seeds, which had relatively low yields and required less irrigation. Farmers used cow dung as fertilizer.

After 1960, the use of high-yield seeds (HYV) began. This increased the use of irrigation and chemical fertilizers and pesticides. This also increased the need for irrigation. This also led to a significant increase in wheat and rice production, which is why it is also called the Green Revolution.

Agricultural Equipment

In India, traditional agricultural tools such as hoes, pickaxes, sickles, and axes are used alongside modern machinery. Farmers use tractors for plowing, harvesters for harvesting, and threshers for threshing.

Irrigation in India

Irrigation in India refers to the supply of water for cultivation and agricultural activities from Indian rivers, ponds, wells, canals, and other artificial projects. In a country like India, 64% of arable land is monsoon-dependent. The economic importance of irrigation in India includes reducing volatility in production, improving agricultural productivity, reducing dependence on monsoons, bringing more land under cultivation, creating employment opportunities, increasing access to electricity and transportation, and controlling floods and droughts.

Agricultural Exports

India's agricultural exports have reached a historic high of $50 billion. Agricultural product exports for the year 2021-22 have crossed $50 billion. This is the highest agricultural product export ever. According to provisional data released by the Directorate General of Commercial Intelligence and Statistics, agricultural production increased by 19.92 percent to $50.21 billion during 2021-22.

This growth rate is impressive and exceeds the growth rate of 17.66 percent, i.e. $41.87 billion, in 2020-21. This achievement over the last two years will significantly contribute to realizing Prime Minister Narendra Modi's dream of improving farmers' incomes. This is the highest ever export of rice, wheat, sugar, and other grains. Wheat exports have registered an unprecedented increase of 273 percent.

Indus Valley Civilization | Etymology and The Extent of the Indus Valley Civilization.

The Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3300–1300 BCE) was a civilization of ancient India. The Indus Valley Civilization spanned the Indus River region of South Asia. Its early development (c. 7500–3300 BCE) occurred along the banks of the Indus and Ghaggar/Hakra rivers. Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Kalibangan, Lothal, Dholavira, and Rakhigarhi were its major centers. In 2014, Bhirdana was identified as the oldest city discovered in the Indus Valley Civilization, dating back to approximately 7500 to 6500 BCE. Based on excavations conducted during the British period, archaeologists and historians estimate that this was a highly developed civilization, with cities being settled and destroyed several times.

In the seventh century, when people were digging clay for bricks in the Punjab province, they found ready-made bricks, which they considered a miracle from God and used to build houses. Subsequently, in 1826, Charles Mason first discovered this ancient civilization. Cunningham surveyed the site in 1856. During the construction of the railway line between Karachi and Lahore in 1856, the Burton brothers reported the Harappa site to the government. Consequently, the Archaeological Survey of India was established in 1861 under the direction of Alexander Cunningham. In 1902, Lord Curzon appointed John Marshall as Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India. Fleet wrote an article about this ancient civilization. In 1921, Daya Ram Sahni excavated Harappa. Thus, the civilization was named the Harappan Civilization, and Rakhaldas Banerjee was credited with discovering Mohenjo-daro.

This civilization was spread across the Indus River valley, hence the name Indus Valley Civilization. It is also called the first urbanization because of the emergence of cities. It is also called the Bronze Age because of the first use of bronze. 1,400 centers of the Indus Valley Civilization have been discovered, of which 925 are in India. 80 percent of the sites are located around the Indus River and its tributaries. Only 3 percent of the total discovered sites have been excavated so far.

Etymology

The Indus Valley Civilization spanned a vast area. Sindhu was a civilization located along the banks of the Indus River. Due to variations in its geographical pronunciation, this Sindhu came to be called Sindhu, which later gave rise to the Hindu pronunciation for the people who lived there. Evidence of this civilization was found in the excavations at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro. Scholars therefore named it the Indus Valley Civilization, as these areas fell within the basin of the Indus and its tributaries. However, later, remains of this civilization were also found in Ropar, Lothal, Kalibangan, Banawali, and Rangpur, all of which lay outside the basin of the Indus and its tributaries. Therefore, many historians consider it more appropriate to call this civilization the "Harappan Civilization," since Harappa was its primary center, although the river itself is actually called the Indus.

The Extent of the Indus Valley Civilization

The territory of this civilization was many times larger and more extensive than any other ancient civilization in the world. The center of this civilization was in Punjab and Sindh. It subsequently expanded southward and eastward. Thus, the Harappan culture extended not only to parts of Punjab, Sindh, and Balochistan, but also to the border regions of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana, and western Uttar Pradesh. Its extent stretched from the banks of the Chenab River at Manda in the north to Daimabad (Maharashtra) in the south, and from Sutkagendor Pak in Sindh province, located on the Makran coast of Balochistan, in the west, to Hiranyakashipu, Meerut, and Kurukshetra in Alamgirpur in the northeast. The region's initial extent was triangular (from Manda in Jammu in the north to Bhogtar in Gujarat in the south, and from Sutkagendor in Afghanistan in the west to Meerut in Uttar Pradesh in the east), covering an area of ​​2,000,000 square kilometers. This area is not only larger than modern-day Pakistan, but also larger than ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. During the third and second millennia BC, no civilization in the world had a larger area than the Harappan culture. To date, a total of 1,500 sites of this culture have been discovered in the Indian subcontinent. Some of these sites are in the early stages, some in the mature stage, and some in the late stage.

Only a few sites are in the mature stage. Before the discovery of the Indus Valley Civilization, geologists and scholars believed that human civilization originated with the Aryans. But evidence from the Indus Valley dispelled their misconceptions, and they were forced to believe that ancient Indian civilization flourished long before the arrival of the Aryans. This civilization was named the Indus Valley Civilization or Indus Civilization. Only half a dozen of these sites can be considered cities. Two of these are extremely important: Harappa in Punjab and Mohenjo-daro (original pronunciation: Muenjo-daro, literally "mound of ghosts") in Sindh. Both sites are in present-day Pakistan, 483 kilometers apart, and are connected by the Indus River. The third city was located at Chanhu-daro, 130 kilometers south of Mohenjo-daro, and the fourth was at Lothal on the Gulf of Khambhat in Gujarat. Additionally, Kalibangan (literally "black bangles") in northern Rajasthan and Banawali in the Hisar district of Haryana are located. All these sites reflect a mature and advanced Harappan culture. The coastal cities of Sutkagendor and Surkotada also represent a mature phase of this culture. Both are characterized by the presence of a city citadel. Remains of the Late Harappan period have also been found at Rangpur and Rojdi in the Kathiawar peninsula of Gujarat. Charles Mason first discovered this civilization in 1826.

Town Planning

The most distinctive feature of this civilization was its developed town planning. Both Harappa and Mohenjo-daro had their own citadels, where the ruling families lived. Outside the citadel of each city was a lower town where the common people lived in brick houses. A distinctive feature of these urban buildings was that they were built in a grid-like manner. Streets intersected each other at right angles, dividing the city into numerous rectangular sections. This was true of all Indus settlements, whether large or small. The buildings of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro were massive. The monuments there bear witness to the mastery of their rulers' labor and tax collection. Even the common people admired their power and prestige upon seeing these massive brick buildings.

Mohenjo-daro's most famous site is the Great Public Bath, whose reservoir is located within the citadel mound. It is a beautiful example of brick architecture. It is 11.88 meters long, 7.01 meters wide, and 2.43 meters deep. Stairs lead down at both ends. Adjacent to this are changing rooms. The bathroom floor is made of baked bricks. A nearby room houses a large well, from which water was drawn and poured into a pipe. The pipe has a vent at the corner, allowing water to flow into a drain. This massive bath is believed to have been built for ritual bathing, traditionally essential for religious ceremonies in India. The largest structure at Mohenjo-daro is the granary, measuring 45.71 meters long and 15.23 meters wide. Six granaries have been found within the Harappan citadel, built in two rows on a brick platform. Each granary is 15.23 meters long and 6.09 meters wide and is located a few meters from the river bank. The floor area of ​​these twelve units is approximately 838.125 square meters, approximately equal to the granary at Mohenjo-daro. To the south of the Harappan granaries is an open floor, on which circular brick platforms are built in two rows. Wheat and barley grains have been found in cracks in the floor, suggesting that crops were threshed on these platforms. Two-room barracks have also been found in Harappa, likely for laborers. At Kalibangan, brick platforms have been found in the southern part of the city, likely for granaries. Thus, it is clear that granaries were an integral part of Harappan culture.

The use of bricks in Harappan cities is unique, as Egyptian buildings of the same period used only sun-dried bricks. The use of baked bricks is also evident in contemporary Mesopotamia, but not on the same scale as the Indus Valley Civilization. Mohenjo-daro's drainage system was remarkable. Almost every house, whether large or small, had a courtyard and a bathroom. Water from the houses flowed onto the streets, where drains were built beneath them. These drains were often covered with bricks and stone slabs. These drains also had manholes. Remains of roads and drains have also been found in Banawali.

 

Mohenjo-daro Civilization | History of the Mohenjo-daro Civilization

 

Mohenjo-daro is an archaeological site located in the Sindh province of ancient India. Numerous remains of the Indus Valley Civilization have been found here.

Mohenjo-Daro Civilization

The word "Mohenjo-Daro" is derived from the Sindhi language, and its correct pronunciation is "Muan-jo-Daro." It literally means "mound of burials." It is considered the world's oldest planned and most developed city. It is the most advanced city of the Indus Valley Civilization. The remains of this city are located on the banks of the Indus River in Sukkur district. It was discovered by Rakhaldas Banerjee in 1922. Excavations began under the direction of John Marshall, Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India. A large number of buildings, metal statues, and seals were discovered during the excavations. In the last 100 years, only one-third of the city has been excavated, and that has now ceased. It is believed that the city covered an area of ​​125 hectares and also had a reservoir.

History of the Mohenjo-daro Civilization

Mohenjo-daro was the center of the ancient civilization of the Indus Valley. It is located twenty kilometers from Ladkana and 80 kilometers southwest of Sukkur. It is 400 miles from Harappa, another important center in the Indus Valley. The city existed around 2600 BCE and disappeared for unknown reasons around 1700 BCE. However, experts believe that changes in the course of the Indus River, floods, external invasions, or earthquakes may have been the main causes.

Mohenjo-daro was discovered in 1922 by British archaeologist Sir John Marshall, and its remains remain a feature of the Mohenjo-daro Museum. However, there is also a school of thought that disputes this interpretation and claims that it was discovered in 1911 by R.K. Bhinder, an expert on antiquities in secular India. Hakim Shah Bukhari, former director of the Mohenjo-daro Conservation Cell, says, "R.K. Bhinder drew attention to the site's historical significance as a sacred Buddhist site. About an ashra later, Sir John Marshall visited the site and began excavations. The city was well-organized. Its streets were open and straight, with proper drainage. It is estimated that about 35,000 people lived there. Experts estimate that the city was destroyed and resettled seven times, the most significant of which was by the floods of the Indus River. The world's first bathhouse, known as the Great Bath, was found here. The city is a World Heritage Site under the auspices of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).

Features of Mohenjo-Daro

The beauty of Mohenjo-Daro is that you can still wander the streets and lanes of this ancient city. Artifacts of its civilization and culture adorn museums, but the city remains where it once was. Its walls still stand strong, and you can relax here. Despite its ruins, you can suddenly feel a sense of peace as you step onto the threshold of a house, or smell a fragrance while standing at a kitchen window. Or you can hear the tinkling sound of a bullock cart on a deserted city street, or the color of the soil you may have seen in archaeological photographs. It's true that the broken steps in the courtyard no longer lead you anywhere; they are incomplete, reaching the sky. But standing on those incomplete steps, it feels like you're on the roof of the world; from there, you're looking not at history, but at its present. This city is said to be India's oldest historical site.

Famous Pond

In Mohenjo-daro's Divinity Lane, located in a lane called Divinity Lane, is the famous pond, approximately forty feet long, twenty-five feet wide, and seven feet deep. Stairs descend into the pond from the north and south. Rooms are built on three sides of the pond. Eight bathrooms are located on the north side. The pond was constructed with great care, as none of its doors faces another. The bricks are exceptionally strong. To prevent impure water from entering the pond, lime and chirodi mortar were used between the bricks on the bottom and walls. The walls are paved with asphalt. A double-circular well was built to supply water to the pond. Drains made of baked bricks were also built to drain the water from the pond, and, importantly, it is covered with baked bricks. This proves that despite being so ancient, the people here were in no way inferior to us. Overall, the Indus Valley was characterized by its baked bricks and covered drains, and its well-organized drainage system was unmatched in earlier recorded history.

Agriculture at Mohenjo-daro

Excavations have also revealed the existence of an agricultural and pastoral civilization. Tools made of stone from Sindh and copper from Rajasthan were used for farming. According to historian Irfan Habib, the people here cultivated the Rabi crop. Excavations have revealed strong evidence of the cultivation of wheat, mustard, cotton, barley, and gram. It is believed that many other crops were also grown here; seeds of all but cotton have been found. A sample of one of the world's two oldest cotton fabrics was found here. Excavations have also uncovered a textile dyeing factory.

Town Planning

The buildings of Mohenjo-daro may have fallen into ruins, but these ruins are enough to illustrate the vastness of the city's streets and lanes. The streets follow a grid plan, meaning they are crisscrossed.

The eastern settlements are considered "elite settlements" because they feature large houses, wide roads, and numerous wells. The streets of Mohenjo-daro are so wide that two bullock carts can easily pass through them. Houses are on both sides of the road. Interestingly, only the backs of the houses face the road, meaning the doors face the inner lanes. In fact, Mohenjo-daro is commendable from a health perspective because, despite being so far behind us, its town planning system is remarkable. Historians say that Mohenjo-daro was the first culture of the Indus Valley Civilization to obtain groundwater by digging wells. Mohenjo-daro had approximately 700 wells. Looking at its unmatched drainage system, wells, ponds and rivers, we can say that the Mohenjodaro civilization was truly a water culture.

Mohenjo-Daro Museum

The Mohenjo-Daro Museum is small. Its main collections are located in Karachi, Lahore, Delhi, and London. It houses black wheat, copper and bronze vessels, seals, musical instruments, large pottery carved on a wheel and painted black and brown, chess pieces, lamps, scales, a copper mirror, a clay bullock cart and other toys, a two-stone mill, combs, clay bracelets, necklaces with colorful stone beads, and stone tools. According to Ali Nawaz, who works at the museum, some gold jewelry was once found here, but was stolen.

A special feature of this museum is that it contains tools, but no weapons. Through this research, scholars are trying to understand the governance and social management practices of the Indus Valley Civilization. Discipline was certainly there, but not by force, but by intelligence.

The museum also includes some needles. Numerous copper and bronze needles were found during the excavation. Kashinath Dixit found three gold needles, one of which was two inches long. These are believed to have been used for intricate embroidery. In addition to these needles, ivory and copper needles were also found during the excavation.