Agricultural Development in India : History of Indian Agriculture, Indian agriculture after independence

 

Agriculture refers to crop production and animal husbandry. India's economy is based on agriculture. Agriculture has been practiced in India for approximately 10,000 years. That is why India is called an agricultural country. However, it is fair to say that real agricultural development in India began with the Green Revolution of the 1960s, led by Dr. M.S. Swaminathan. Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru and Dr. A.B. Joshi played a key role in bringing the Green Revolution to India. Since then, India has established a strong agricultural infrastructure, and today India has all the necessary technologies available.

History of Indian Agriculture

India has a rich agricultural tradition. Historians' research shows that even during the Indus Valley Civilization, agriculture was the backbone of India's economy.

During the Vedic period, sowing and harvesting were practiced. Tools such as plows, sickles, and sieves were used, and various grains such as wheat, rice, and barley were cultivated. Ancient India is also credited with establishing the tradition of increasing soil fertility through the system of cyclic fallow. According to Romesberg (the father of European botany), this system was later adopted in the Western world.

During research on the Indus Valley Civilization, excavations in Kantha have uncovered abundant evidence that agriculture was highly advanced approximately five thousand years ago. Revenue was paid in grain, a conclusion drawn by literary scholars and archaeologists based on the extensive granaries excavated at Mohenjo-Daro. Furthermore, samples of wheat and barley recovered during excavations confirm their presence as staple crops at that time.

Kautilya's Arthashastra describes the appointment of agricultural officials to promote agriculture and agricultural production during the Mauryan period. The Greek traveler Megasthenes also wrote that the king appointed officials to ensure equitable distribution of water in the main canal and its branches, and to inspect rivers and wells.

Indian agriculture suffered the most adverse effects before India's independence. During this period, the Indian economy was exploited and fell prey to British self-interest, and its consequences were felt across all sectors. Indeed, this was a period of exploitation of the Indian agricultural sector, resulting in a worsening of agricultural conditions.

After independence, until the mid-1960s, agriculture in India used traditional seeds, which had relatively low yields and required less irrigation. Farmers used cow dung as fertilizer.

                                                                                 

After 1960, the use of high-yield seeds (HYV) began. This increased the use of irrigation and chemical fertilizers and pesticides. This also increased the need for irrigation. This also led to a significant increase in wheat and rice production, which is why it is also called the Green Revolution.

Agricultural Equipment

In India, traditional agricultural tools such as hoes, pickaxes, sickles, and axes are used alongside modern machinery. Farmers use tractors for plowing, harvesters for harvesting, and threshers for threshing.

Irrigation in India

Irrigation in India refers to the supply of water for cultivation and agricultural activities from Indian rivers, ponds, wells, canals, and other artificial projects. In a country like India, 64% of arable land is monsoon-dependent. The economic importance of irrigation in India includes reducing volatility in production, improving agricultural productivity, reducing dependence on monsoons, bringing more land under cultivation, creating employment opportunities, increasing access to electricity and transportation, and controlling floods and droughts.

Agricultural Exports

India's agricultural exports have reached a historic high of $50 billion. Agricultural product exports for the year 2021-22 have crossed $50 billion. This is the highest agricultural product export ever. According to provisional data released by the Directorate General of Commercial Intelligence and Statistics, agricultural production increased by 19.92 percent to $50.21 billion during 2021-22.

This growth rate is impressive and exceeds the growth rate of 17.66 percent, i.e. $41.87 billion, in 2020-21. This achievement over the last two years will significantly contribute to realizing Prime Minister Narendra Modi's dream of improving farmers' incomes. This is the highest ever export of rice, wheat, sugar, and other grains. Wheat exports have registered an unprecedented increase of 273 percent.

Indian agriculture after independence

Despite an initial sluggishness in the post-independence era, independent India succeeded in developing a comprehensive agricultural program.

In the years following independence, India has made significant strides towards food security. While the country's population has tripled, grain production has increased more than fourfold, leading to a substantial rise in per capita grain availability. Prior to the mid-1960s, India relied on imports and food aid to meet its domestic needs. However, severe droughts over two consecutive years—1965 and 1966—compelled India to reform its agricultural policy and realize that it could not remain dependent on foreign aid and imports for food security. India adopted key policy reforms focused on achieving self-sufficiency in grain production. This marked the beginning of the 'Green Revolution' in India. It was initiated through the adoption of high-yielding and disease-resistant wheat varieties, alongside improved farming practices designed to boost productivity. The state of Punjab spearheaded India's Green Revolution and earned the distinction of being the country's 'breadbasket'.

Initially, production increased in the irrigated regions of Punjab, Haryana, and western Uttar Pradesh. India's total grain production rose rapidly as farmers and government officials focused on agricultural productivity and the exchange of knowledge. In 1948, the average wheat yield in India was 0.8 tonnes per hectare, whereas by 1975, the same land was producing 4.7 tonnes. This rapid surge in agricultural productivity enabled India to become self-reliant by the 1970s. It also motivated small farmers to seek ways to increase the per-hectare yield of staple grains. By the year 2000, wheat varieties capable of yielding up to 6 tonnes per hectare were being adopted on Indian farms.

Indus Valley Civilization | Etymology and The Extent of the Indus Valley Civilization, History of discovery and excavation.

 

The Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3300–1300 BCE) was a civilization of ancient India. The Indus Valley Civilization spanned the Indus River region of South Asia. Its early development (c. 7500–3300 BCE) occurred along the banks of the Indus and Ghaggar/Hakra rivers. Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Kalibangan, Lothal, Dholavira, and Rakhigarhi were its major centers. In 2014, Bhirdana was identified as the oldest city discovered in the Indus Valley Civilization, dating back to approximately 7500 to 6500 BCE. Based on excavations conducted during the British period, archaeologists and historians estimate that this was a highly developed civilization, with cities being settled and destroyed several times.

In the seventh century, when people were digging clay for bricks in the Punjab province, they found ready-made bricks, which they considered a miracle from God and used to build houses. Subsequently, in 1826, Charles Mason first discovered this ancient civilization. Cunningham surveyed the site in 1856. During the construction of the railway line between Karachi and Lahore in 1856, the Burton brothers reported the Harappa site to the government. Consequently, the Archaeological Survey of India was established in 1861 under the direction of Alexander Cunningham. In 1902, Lord Curzon appointed John Marshall as Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India. Fleet wrote an article about this ancient civilization. In 1921, Daya Ram Sahni excavated Harappa. Thus, the civilization was named the Harappan Civilization, and Rakhaldas Banerjee was credited with discovering Mohenjo-daro.

This civilization was spread across the Indus River valley, hence the name Indus Valley Civilization. It is also called the first urbanization because of the emergence of cities. It is also called the Bronze Age because of the first use of bronze. 1,400 centers of the Indus Valley Civilization have been discovered, of which 925 are in India. 80 percent of the sites are located around the Indus River and its tributaries. Only 3 percent of the total discovered sites have been excavated so far.

Etymology

The Indus Valley Civilization spanned a vast area. Sindhu was a civilization located along the banks of the Indus River. Due to variations in its geographical pronunciation, this Sindhu came to be called Sindhu, which later gave rise to the Hindu pronunciation for the people who lived there. Evidence of this civilization was found in the excavations at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro. Scholars therefore named it the Indus Valley Civilization, as these areas fell within the basin of the Indus and its tributaries. However, later, remains of this civilization were also found in Ropar, Lothal, Kalibangan, Banawali, and Rangpur, all of which lay outside the basin of the Indus and its tributaries. Therefore, many historians consider it more appropriate to call this civilization the "Harappan Civilization," since Harappa was its primary center, although the river itself is actually called the Indus.

The Extent of the Indus Valley Civilization

The territory of this civilization was many times larger and more extensive than any other ancient civilization in the world. The center of this civilization was in Punjab and Sindh. It subsequently expanded southward and eastward. Thus, the Harappan culture extended not only to parts of Punjab, Sindh, and Balochistan, but also to the border regions of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana, and western Uttar Pradesh. Its extent stretched from the banks of the Chenab River at Manda in the north to Daimabad (Maharashtra) in the south, and from Sutkagendor Pak in Sindh province, located on the Makran coast of Balochistan, in the west, to Hiranyakashipu, Meerut, and Kurukshetra in Alamgirpur in the northeast. The region's initial extent was triangular (from Manda in Jammu in the north to Bhogtar in Gujarat in the south, and from Sutkagendor in Afghanistan in the west to Meerut in Uttar Pradesh in the east), covering an area of ​​2,000,000 square kilometers. This area is not only larger than modern-day Pakistan, but also larger than ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. During the third and second millennia BC, no civilization in the world had a larger area than the Harappan culture. To date, a total of 1,500 sites of this culture have been discovered in the Indian subcontinent. Some of these sites are in the early stages, some in the mature stage, and some in the late stage.

                                                                                 

  

Only a few sites are in the mature stage. Before the discovery of the Indus Valley Civilization, geologists and scholars believed that human civilization originated with the Aryans. But evidence from the Indus Valley dispelled their misconceptions, and they were forced to believe that ancient Indian civilization flourished long before the arrival of the Aryans. This civilization was named the Indus Valley Civilization or Indus Civilization. Only half a dozen of these sites can be considered cities. Two of these are extremely important: Harappa in Punjab and Mohenjo-daro (original pronunciation: Muenjo-daro, literally "mound of ghosts") in Sindh. Both sites are in present-day Pakistan, 483 kilometers apart, and are connected by the Indus River. The third city was located at Chanhu-daro, 130 kilometers south of Mohenjo-daro, and the fourth was at Lothal on the Gulf of Khambhat in Gujarat. Additionally, Kalibangan (literally "black bangles") in northern Rajasthan and Banawali in the Hisar district of Haryana are located. All these sites reflect a mature and advanced Harappan culture. The coastal cities of Sutkagendor and Surkotada also represent a mature phase of this culture. Both are characterized by the presence of a city citadel. Remains of the Late Harappan period have also been found at Rangpur and Rojdi in the Kathiawar peninsula of Gujarat. Charles Mason first discovered this civilization in 1826.

Town Planning

The most distinctive feature of this civilization was its developed town planning. Both Harappa and Mohenjo-daro had their own citadels, where the ruling families lived. Outside the citadel of each city was a lower town where the common people lived in brick houses. A distinctive feature of these urban buildings was that they were built in a grid-like manner. Streets intersected each other at right angles, dividing the city into numerous rectangular sections. This was true of all Indus settlements, whether large or small. The buildings of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro were massive. The monuments there bear witness to the mastery of their rulers' labor and tax collection. Even the common people admired their power and prestige upon seeing these massive brick buildings.

Mohenjo-daro's most famous site is the Great Public Bath, whose reservoir is located within the citadel mound. It is a beautiful example of brick architecture. It is 11.88 meters long, 7.01 meters wide, and 2.43 meters deep. Stairs lead down at both ends. Adjacent to this are changing rooms. The bathroom floor is made of baked bricks. A nearby room houses a large well, from which water was drawn and poured into a pipe. The pipe has a vent at the corner, allowing water to flow into a drain. This massive bath is believed to have been built for ritual bathing, traditionally essential for religious ceremonies in India. The largest structure at Mohenjo-daro is the granary, measuring 45.71 meters long and 15.23 meters wide. Six granaries have been found within the Harappan citadel, built in two rows on a brick platform. Each granary is 15.23 meters long and 6.09 meters wide and is located a few meters from the river bank. The floor area of ​​these twelve units is approximately 838.125 square meters, approximately equal to the granary at Mohenjo-daro. To the south of the Harappan granaries is an open floor, on which circular brick platforms are built in two rows. Wheat and barley grains have been found in cracks in the floor, suggesting that crops were threshed on these platforms. Two-room barracks have also been found in Harappa, likely for laborers. At Kalibangan, brick platforms have been found in the southern part of the city, likely for granaries. Thus, it is clear that granaries were an integral part of Harappan culture.

The use of bricks in Harappan cities is unique, as Egyptian buildings of the same period used only sun-dried bricks. The use of baked bricks is also evident in contemporary Mesopotamia, but not on the same scale as the Indus Valley Civilization. Mohenjo-daro's drainage system was remarkable. Almost every house, whether large or small, had a courtyard and a bathroom. Water from the houses flowed onto the streets, where drains were built beneath them. These drains were often covered with bricks and stone slabs. These drains also had manholes. Remains of roads and drains have also been found in Banawali.

History of discovery and excavation

Charles Masson, a deserter from the East India Company's army, was the first person to provide modern information about the ruins of the Indus Civilization. In 1829, Masson traveled through the princely states of Punjab, gathering intelligence for the Company in exchange for a pardon. A condition of this agreement was that any historical artifacts discovered during his travels had to be handed over to the Company. Masson possessed a sound understanding of classical history—particularly the military campaigns of Alexander the Great. He specifically visited cities where Alexander had campaigned and whose archaeological sites had been documented by historians of those expeditions. Masson's most significant archaeological discovery in Punjab was Harappa, a major city of the Indus Civilization situated in the valley of the Ravi River, a tributary of the Indus. He prepared detailed notes and sketches of the rich historical artifacts found at Harappa; many of these items were partially buried. In 1842, Masson incorporated his findings on Harappa into his book, "Narrative of Various Journeys in Balochistan, Afghanistan, and the Punjab". He attributed the Harappan ruins to the era of recorded history, as he mistakenly believed they were first mentioned during Alexander's campaign. Masson was struck by the site's immense size and the numerous large mounds formed by prolonged erosion.

Two years later, the company sent Alexander Burnes to the Indus River to assess the feasibility of using this waterway to transport its troops. Burnes, who also visited Harappa, observed the use of fired bricks in the ancient structures there but also noted that local people were indiscriminately plundering these bricks.

Despite these reports, the extraction of bricks from Harappa continued even more destructively after the British annexation of Punjab in 1848–49. Vast quantities of bricks were carted away to serve as track ballast—the stone or material laid beneath the rails—for the railway lines being constructed in Punjab. Bricks from Harappa were used in the approximately 160-kilometer-long railway track laid between Multan and Lahore in the mid-1850s.

Mohenjo-daro Civilization | History of the Mohenjo-daro Civilization, Features of Mohenjo-Daro

 

Mohenjo-daro is an archaeological site located in the Sindh province of ancient India. Numerous remains of the Indus Valley Civilization have been found here.

Mohenjo-Daro Civilization

The word "Mohenjo-Daro" is derived from the Sindhi language, and its correct pronunciation is "Muan-jo-Daro." It literally means "mound of burials." It is considered the world's oldest planned and most developed city. It is the most advanced city of the Indus Valley Civilization. The remains of this city are located on the banks of the Indus River in Sukkur district. It was discovered by Rakhaldas Banerjee in 1922. Excavations began under the direction of John Marshall, Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India. A large number of buildings, metal statues, and seals were discovered during the excavations. In the last 100 years, only one-third of the city has been excavated, and that has now ceased. It is believed that the city covered an area of ​​125 hectares and also had a reservoir.

History of the Mohenjo-daro Civilization

Mohenjo-daro was the center of the ancient civilization of the Indus Valley. It is located twenty kilometers from Ladkana and 80 kilometers southwest of Sukkur. It is 400 miles from Harappa, another important center in the Indus Valley. The city existed around 2600 BCE and disappeared for unknown reasons around 1700 BCE. However, experts believe that changes in the course of the Indus River, floods, external invasions, or earthquakes may have been the main causes.

Mohenjo-daro was discovered in 1922 by British archaeologist Sir John Marshall, and its remains remain a feature of the Mohenjo-daro Museum. However, there is also a school of thought that disputes this interpretation and claims that it was discovered in 1911 by R.K. Bhinder, an expert on antiquities in secular India. Hakim Shah Bukhari, former director of the Mohenjo-daro Conservation Cell, says, "R.K. Bhinder drew attention to the site's historical significance as a sacred Buddhist site. About an ashra later, Sir John Marshall visited the site and began excavations. The city was well-organized. Its streets were open and straight, with proper drainage. It is estimated that about 35,000 people lived there. Experts estimate that the city was destroyed and resettled seven times, the most significant of which was by the floods of the Indus River. The world's first bathhouse, known as the Great Bath, was found here. The city is a World Heritage Site under the auspices of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).

Features of Mohenjo-Daro

The beauty of Mohenjo-Daro is that you can still wander the streets and lanes of this ancient city. Artifacts of its civilization and culture adorn museums, but the city remains where it once was. Its walls still stand strong, and you can relax here. Despite its ruins, you can suddenly feel a sense of peace as you step onto the threshold of a house, or smell a fragrance while standing at a kitchen window. Or you can hear the tinkling sound of a bullock cart on a deserted city street, or the color of the soil you may have seen in archaeological photographs. It's true that the broken steps in the courtyard no longer lead you anywhere; they are incomplete, reaching the sky. But standing on those incomplete steps, it feels like you're on the roof of the world; from there, you're looking not at history, but at its present. This city is said to be India's oldest historical site.

Major buildings of the Mohenjo-daro civilization

In 1950, Sir Mortimer Wheeler identified a large structure at Mohenjo-daro as the "Great Granary." Its robust timber framework included sections resembling storage bays, featuring air ducts designed to allow air to circulate around the grain. Wheeler believed that grain was transported from villages in bullock carts and unloaded directly into these compartments. However, Jonathan Mark Kenoyer noted the absence of any grain residue within the structure; he argued that it would be more accurate to describe it as a "Great Hall" serving an unknown function.

                                                                                   

 

Near the "Great Granary" lies a large, magnificent public bathing facility known as the "Great Bath." Steps lead from a colonnaded courtyard down to a brick-lined tank, which was waterproofed with a layer of bitumen. The tank measures 12 meters in length, 7 meters in width, and 2.4 meters in depth. It may have been used for ritual purification.

Other significant structures include a "Pillared Hall"—believed to have served as an assembly hall—and the so-called "College Hall," a complex of buildings comprising 78 rooms that is thought to have been the residence of priests.

Famous Pond

In Mohenjo-daro's Divinity Lane, located in a lane called Divinity Lane, is the famous pond, approximately forty feet long, twenty-five feet wide, and seven feet deep. Stairs descend into the pond from the north and south. Rooms are built on three sides of the pond. Eight bathrooms are located on the north side. The pond was constructed with great care, as none of its doors faces another. The bricks are exceptionally strong. To prevent impure water from entering the pond, lime and chirodi mortar were used between the bricks on the bottom and walls. The walls are paved with asphalt. A double-circular well was built to supply water to the pond. Drains made of baked bricks were also built to drain the water from the pond, and, importantly, it is covered with baked bricks. This proves that despite being so ancient, the people here were in no way inferior to us. Overall, the Indus Valley was characterized by its baked bricks and covered drains, and its well-organized drainage system was unmatched in earlier recorded history.

Agriculture at Mohenjo-daro

Excavations have also revealed the existence of an agricultural and pastoral civilization. Tools made of stone from Sindh and copper from Rajasthan were used for farming. According to historian Irfan Habib, the people here cultivated the Rabi crop. Excavations have revealed strong evidence of the cultivation of wheat, mustard, cotton, barley, and gram. It is believed that many other crops were also grown here; seeds of all but cotton have been found. A sample of one of the world's two oldest cotton fabrics was found here. Excavations have also uncovered a textile dyeing factory.

Town Planning

The buildings of Mohenjo-daro may have fallen into ruins, but these ruins are enough to illustrate the vastness of the city's streets and lanes. The streets follow a grid plan, meaning they are crisscrossed.

The eastern settlements are considered "elite settlements" because they feature large houses, wide roads, and numerous wells. The streets of Mohenjo-daro are so wide that two bullock carts can easily pass through them. Houses are on both sides of the road. Interestingly, only the backs of the houses face the road, meaning the doors face the inner lanes. In fact, Mohenjo-daro is commendable from a health perspective because, despite being so far behind us, its town planning system is remarkable. Historians say that Mohenjo-daro was the first culture of the Indus Valley Civilization to obtain groundwater by digging wells. Mohenjo-daro had approximately 700 wells. Looking at its unmatched drainage system, wells, ponds and rivers, we can say that the Mohenjodaro civilization was truly a water culture.

Mohenjo-Daro Museum

The Mohenjo-Daro Museum is small. Its main collections are located in Karachi, Lahore, Delhi, and London. It houses black wheat, copper and bronze vessels, seals, musical instruments, large pottery carved on a wheel and painted black and brown, chess pieces, lamps, scales, a copper mirror, a clay bullock cart and other toys, a two-stone mill, combs, clay bracelets, necklaces with colorful stone beads, and stone tools. According to Ali Nawaz, who works at the museum, some gold jewelry was once found here, but was stolen.

A special feature of this museum is that it contains tools, but no weapons. Through this research, scholars are trying to understand the governance and social management practices of the Indus Valley Civilization. Discipline was certainly there, but not by force, but by intelligence.

The museum also includes some needles. Numerous copper and bronze needles were found during the excavation. Kashinath Dixit found three gold needles, one of which was two inches long. These are believed to have been used for intricate embroidery. In addition to these needles, ivory and copper needles were also found during the excavation.

An important Satyagraha in the life of Mahatma Gandhi: Champaran Satyagraha

 

In 1917, Mahatma Gandhi led a movement in the Champaran district of Bihar, known as the Champaran Satyagraha. This was Gandhi's first satyagraha in India.

Background to the Champaran Satyagraha

Mahatma Gandhi attended the Lucknow session of the Congress in December 1916. On this occasion, he met a man who would change the course of his political career: Rajkumar Shukla. This simple but determined man told him about the suffering of the peasants in his region and their exploitation by the British, and urged him to end it.

Gandhiji was not impressed by Rajkumar Shukla at first meeting, and therefore refused him. However, Shukla met him repeatedly and persuaded him to accept his request. As a result, within four months, the peasants of Champaran were permanently freed from the forced cultivation of indigo on 15% of their land. Gandhiji was not confident of such quick success. Thus, Gandhi's connection with Bihar and Champaran was forever linked.

The Champaran peasant movement took place in April 1917. It was on the soil of Champaran that Gandhiji first employed his proven weapons of Satyagraha and non-violence in India, which he had practiced in South Africa. It was here that he resolved that from then on, he would live his life wearing only one garment. It was after this movement that he was awarded the title of "Mahatma." This movement also gave the country such great figures as Rajendra Prasad, Acharya Kripalani, Mazharul Haq, and Brijkishore Prasad.

In the twelfth chapter of the fifth part of his autobiography, "Experiments with Truth," titled "The Stain of Indigo," Gandhiji writes, "Before going to the Lucknow session, I did not even know the name of Champaran. I had no knowledge of indigo cultivation. I was unaware of the suffering that thousands of farmers had to endure because of it." He further writes, "Rajkumar Shukla, a farmer from Champaran, followed me there. He kept following me and inviting me to his place, saying that he would tell everything to Vakil Babu (Brijkishore Prasad, who was a famous lawyer of Bihar at that time and father-in-law of Jayaprakash Narayan)."

But Mahatma Gandhi told Rajkumar Shukla not to follow him for the time being. At this session, Brijkishore Prasad spoke on the plight of Champaran, after which the Congress passed a resolution. Still, Rajkumar Shukla did not relent and insisted on taking Gandhi to Champaran. Gandhi reluctantly replied, "I will include Champaran in my tour and stay there for a day or two to see the situation for myself. I cannot express my opinion on this matter without seeing it."

Gandhi then went to Kanpur, but Shukla remained adamant. He said, "Champaran is very close. Please give me a day." Gandhi replied, "Forgive me now, but I will definitely go there." Gandhi writes that he felt bound by this.

                                                                                   

 

Still, the stubborn farmer persisted. He reached his ashram in Ahmedabad and insisted on setting a date for his departure. Gandhi could not resist. He announced his departure for Calcutta on April 7th. He requested Rajkumar Shukla to come and welcome him. Shukla had already set up camp there before Gandhiji arrived in Calcutta on April 7, 1917. Gandhiji wrote, "This illiterate, unsophisticated, but determined peasant has won me over."

Gandhiji's First Visit to Patna and the Champaran Movement

Champaran is located in the northwestern region of Bihar. It borders Nepal. At that time, the British had implemented a law requiring farmers to cultivate indigo on every bigha (three katthas) of land. Indigo was cultivated throughout the country, except in Bengal. Farmers received nothing in return for their labor and were subjected to 42 extraordinary taxes. Rajkumar Shukla was a prosperous farmer in that region. He strongly opposed this system of exploitation, resulting in repeated flogging and torture by the British. When his efforts failed, he decided to go to the Lucknow Congress to invite Bal Gangadhar Tilak. However, upon his arrival, he received a suggestion to include Gandhiji, and he considered it.

Finally, Gandhiji agreed, and on April 10, the two arrived in Patna from Calcutta. He writes, "On the way, I realized that this gentleman was a very simple man and that I would have to proceed in my own way." After Patna, the two arrived in Muzaffarpur the next day. There, the next morning, they were welcomed by J.B. Kripalani, a professor at Muzaffarpur University and later president of the Congress Party, and his students. Shukla left Gandhi there and left for Champaran to complete all preparations before departure. It was in Muzaffarpur that Rajendra Prasad first met Gandhi. It was here, with the support of several prominent lawyers and social activists in the state, that they finalized their future strategy.

Subsequently, despite the Commissioner's refusal to grant permission, Mahatma Gandhi entered Champaran on April 15. He received the unwavering support of many farmers, including Rajkumar Shukla. Statements from the affected farmers were recorded. The struggle was fought nonviolently, without direct support from the Congress. It was widely covered in local newspapers, garnering widespread public support for the movement. As a result, the British government was forced to yield. Indigo cultivation, which had been prevalent for the past 135 years, gradually ceased. The exploitation of indigo farmers also ended forever.

British Reaction to Champaran Satyagraha

The British government, initially dismissive of Gandhi’s involvement, was compelled to address the growing discontent surrounding the exploitation of indigo farmers in Champaran. The authorities, under pressure from both the local populace and Gandhi's leadership, set up an inquiry to assess the situation.

1) Formation of Committee of Inquiry: The Lieutenant Governor established a Committee of Inquiry to investigate the agrarian conditions in Champaran, with Gandhi being appointed as one of its members.

2) Committee’s Findings and Recommendations: On October 4, 1917, the Committee submitted its report to the Government, making the following recommendations:

The Tinkathia system should be abolished. 

The ryots who paid Tawan to the factories would receive one-fourth of it back. 

The realization of abwab (illegal cesses) should be stopped.

If someone agrees to grow indigo, it should be voluntary; the term should not be longer than three years, and the decision to select the field where indigo will be grown should be made by the ryots.

3) Government’s Acceptance of Recommendations: The British government accepted almost all of the Committee's recommendations, which led to the passing of the Champaran Agrarian Act in 1918.

4) Abolition of Tinkathia System: As a result, the tinkathia system, which had exploited farmers for over a century, was officially abolished.

Bardoli Satyagraha: A nationalist movement in India | Bardoli Satyagraha Movement, Resolution and Commemoration

 

The Bardoli Satyagraha was a peasant movement and nationalist protest in India. It was a protest against the increased taxes imposed on farmers by the colonial government, specifically demanding the rollback of a 22% tax hike in the Bombay Presidency. The movement began on February 12, 1928, and concluded successfully in August of the same year. It was ultimately led by Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, and its success established him as one of the key leaders of the Indian independence movement.

Background of the Bardoli Satyagraha

In 1926, the Bardoli taluk in Surat district of Gujarat was facing an economic crisis. That year, the Bombay Presidency government increased the tax rate by 30%. Despite appeals from local groups, the government refused to roll back the tax increase and ignored the people's grievances. The farmers' situation was so dire that they barely had enough property and crops left to pay the taxes, let alone support their families.

Exploring Options for the Bardoli Satyagraha

Gujarati activists Narhari Parikh, Ravishankar Vyas, and Mohanlal Pandya met with village leaders and farmers, seeking support from Vallabhbhai Patel, one of Gujarat's most prominent freedom fighters. Patel had led the peasants of Gujarat during the Kheda Satyagraha and had recently served as the mayor of Ahmedabad. He was held in high esteem by the people of the state.

Patel told a delegation of farmers that they should fully understand the implications of rebellion. He would not lead them until there was consensus and understanding across all the villages. Failure to pay taxes could result in the confiscation of their property, including their land, and many could be sent to jail. They could face total ruin. The villagers replied that they were prepared for even the worst outcome, but they could not tolerate the government's unjust actions.

Patel then asked Gandhi to consider the matter, but Gandhi only sought Patel's opinion, and when Patel outlined the way forward with complete confidence, he gave his blessing. However, Gandhi and Patel agreed that neither the Congress nor Gandhi would be directly involved; the movement would be entirely in the hands of the people of Bardoli Taluk.

Bardoli Satyagraha Movement

On February 6, Patel first wrote a letter to the Governor of Bombay, requesting a reduction in the tax for that year, given the hardships faced by the people. However, the Governor ignored the letter and announced the date for tax collection.

Thereafter, Patel instructed all the farmers of the Bardoli taluk to refuse to pay the tax. With the help of Narhari Parikh, Ravishankar Vyas, and Mohanlal Pandya, he divided Bardoli into several zones, appointing a leader and volunteers in each zone. Patel also deployed some active workers close to the government to keep track of the activities of government officials.

Most importantly, Patel instructed the farmers to remain completely non-violent and not to react physically to any provocation or violent action by the authorities. He assured them that the movement would continue until all the taxes for that year were waived and all confiscated property and land were returned to their rightful owners.

                                                                                 

                                                                                    

The people of Gujarat fully supported the farmers. Many farmers hid their valuables with relatives in other areas, and the protesters received financial aid and essential supplies from other regions. However, Patel did not allow any sympathetic demonstrations by enthusiastic supporters in Gujarat or other parts of the country.

The government declared that it would crush this rebellion. Along with tax collectors, some Pathans from northwest India were also brought in to seize the villagers' property and intimidate them. The Pathans and tax collectors forcibly entered houses and looted all property, including livestock (the protesters kept their animals inside their houses when the tax collectors came, so they couldn't take the animals from the fields).

The government started auctioning the houses and land, but no one from Gujarat or any other part of the country came forward to buy them. Patel had appointed volunteers to monitor each village. As soon as the volunteers learned that the officials were coming to auction the property, they would blow conch shells. The farmers would then leave the village and hide in the forest. They never knew which house belonged to whom.

But some wealthy people from Bombay came to buy some land. Even a village that had paid its taxes was targeted. Those who did not participate in the tax boycott or bought confiscated land were ostracized by the community; relatives severed all ties with the families in the village. Other forms of social sanctions against such landlords included refusing to rent their land or work for them. Members of the Legislative Council in Bombay and across India were outraged by the brutal treatment of the protesting peasants. Indian members resigned from their posts and openly expressed their support for the farmers.

Resolution

In 1928, a Parsi member of the Bombay Government finally brokered a settlement. An agreement was reached to return confiscated lands and properties, to waive land revenue for that year, and to defer the 22% tax hike until the following year. The government had appointed the Maxwell-Broomfield Commission to investigate the matter. Following a detailed survey, it was decided to reduce the tax increase to a mere 6.03%. However, the farmers' fundamental problems remained unresolved, and bonded labor persisted.

The farmers celebrated their victory, but Patel continued to work to ensure that all lands and properties were returned to every farmer, so that no one would be left deprived. When the government refused to ask those who had purchased some of the lands to return them, several wealthy sympathizers from Bombay stepped forward to buy those lands and hand them back to their original owners.

Commemoration

The momentum gained from the victory in Bardo li helped revitalize the freedom struggle across the entire country. In 1930, the Congress declared India's independence, and Gandhiji launched the 'Salt Satyagraha.'

Patel attributed this victory to Gandhiji's teachings and the unwavering resolve of the farmers, while people across the nation lauded his decisive leadership. It was the women of Bardo li who first bestowed upon him the title of 'Sardar'—a word that signifies 'chief' or 'leader' in Gujarati and most other Indian languages. It was in the wake of the events in Bardo li that Sardar Patel emerged as one of India's most prominent leaders.

Simon Commission: Indian Statutory Commission | Background of the Simon Commission and The Outcome of the Simon Commission

 

The Indian Statutory Commission, also known as the Simon Commission, was a group of seven members of the British Parliament, chaired by John Simon. This commission came to the Indian subcontinent in 1928 to study constitutional reforms in British India. One of its members was Clement Attlee, who later became the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (1945-1951).

Background of the Simon Commission

This commission was formed because in 1919, when the British government implemented the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms, they announced that a commission would be sent to India after ten years to examine the impact and functioning of the constitutional reforms and to advise on further reforms.

The Muslim League and the Indian National Congress, along with prominent Indian leaders such as Nehru, Gandhi, and Jinnah, strongly opposed this commission because all its members were British, and there were no Indian members. However, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, Periyar E.V. Ramasamy, and Chaudhry Rahmat Ali supported it.

The prominent Indian nationalist Lala Lajpat Rai led the protests against this commission in Lahore. During the protests, the police brutally assaulted him, and he died 18 days later on November 17, 1928.

The Government of India Act of 1919 introduced the system of dual government for governing the provinces of British India. Public opinion in India demanded changes to this system of governance, and the 1919 Government of India Act stipulated that a commission would be appointed after ten years to examine the progress of the government's scheme and suggest new measures for improvement. The Secretary of State for India, F.E. Smith, feared that the Conservative Party in power might lose the election to the Labour Party, and therefore he feared that party members and supporters would be appointed to the commission. Consequently, the commission was hastily appointed, comprising seven members of Parliament to examine the status of the Indian constitution. He also ensured that there were no Indians on the commission, as he believed that Labour MPs and Indian members would vote together. The Viceroy of India, Lord Irwin, also supported the decision to exclude Indians, as he too believed they would vote together with the Labour MPs.

In India, some people were outraged and insulted by the fact that the Simon Commission, which was to determine India's future, had no Indian members. The Indian National Congress passed a resolution at its meeting in Madras (now Chennai) in December 1927 to boycott the commission and challenged the Secretary of State for India, Lord Birkenhead, to draft a constitution acceptable to Indians.

In view of the Congress's opposition, F.E. Smith sought to publicize the commission's meetings with "representative Muslims" in order to "instill in the large Hindu population the fear that the commission was dominated by Muslims and might produce a report highly detrimental to Hindus."

However, opinions were divided; some members of the Muslim League, as well as members of the Hindu Mahasabha and the Central Sikh League, supported cooperation. The Indian Council formed an All-India Committee for cooperation with the Simon Commission, and the Viceroy, Lord Irwin, selected its members. The committee members were: C. S. Naicker (Chairman), Arthur Frum, Nawab Ali Khan, Shivdev Singh Uberoi, Zulfiqar Ali Khan, Hari Singh Gour, Abdullah Al-Mamoon Suhrawardy, Kikabhai Premchand, and Prof. M.C. Raja.

In Burma (now Myanmar), which was also under the purview of the Simon Commission, there were fears that the Burmese union with India would continue, or that the constitution suggested for Burma by the commission would be less liberal than the one chosen for India; these fears led to tension and violence in Burma, culminating in the Saya San Rebellion.

The commission found that untouchables were being denied education and subjected to ill-treatment on the basis of caste.

                                                                                 

 

Lala Lajpat Rai's Opposition to the Simon Commission and His Death

The Simon Commission left England in January 1928. Upon its arrival in Bombay on February 3, 1928, its members were greeted by a large crowd of protesters, although some in the crowd considered it a step towards self-rule. A strike was declared, and many people joined the march, carrying black flags and shouting "Simon, go back!" In Patna, the protests against the Simon Commission were led by M.A. Azazi. Similar protests took place in every major city in India visited by the seven British MPs.

One protest against the Simon Commission became particularly famous. On October 30, 1928, the commission arrived in Lahore, where protesters waving black flags greeted them. This protest was led by the Indian nationalist Lala Lajpat Rai, who had introduced a resolution against the commission in the Punjab Legislative Council in February 1928. The protesters blocked the road to prevent the commission members from leaving the railway station. To clear the way for the commission, the local police, led by Superintendent James Scott, started lathi-charging the protesters. Lala Lajpat Rai was seriously injured, and he died from his head injuries on November 17, 1928.

The Outcome of the Simon Commission

In September 1928—even before the Commission's report was released—Motilal Nehru presented his 'Nehru Report.' Its objective was to counter the allegations that Indians were incapable of reaching a constitutional consensus among themselves. The report proposed that India be granted 'Dominion Status,' thereby empowering it with full self-governance in its internal affairs. Jinnah denounced the report as a "Hindu document" and, in response to the Nehru Report, presented his "Fourteen Points." These Fourteen Points encapsulated the minimum demands of the Muslim community within the context of British rule.

By the time this report was published, the significance of the Commission had already diminished—a consequence of an announcement made on October 31, 1929, by the Viceroy of India, Lord Irwin. This declaration offered a new interpretation of the 1917 Declaration (which had served as the basis for implementing the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms). According to this interpretation, the ultimate policy objective of the British government had always been to grant India 'Dominion Status.' He also proposed convening a 'Round Table Conference' in London to deliberate on this matter. Although this declaration remained a contentious issue among many conservative leaders in London, it did not, in reality, bring about any concrete change in British policy; for the promise itself was highly vague, and its fulfillment remained a distant prospect.

The 'Government of India Act, 1935' was a direct outcome of the Simon Commission. While this Act provided for the establishment of a "responsible" government at the provincial level in India, it made no such provision at the national level—that is, a government accountable not to London, but to the Indian people. This very Act serves as the foundation for numerous provisions of the Indian Constitution. In 1937, the first elections were held in the provinces, resulting in the formation of Congress governments in almost all of them. Clement Attlee was deeply influenced by his experience working on the Commission and supported its final report. However, by 1933, he had begun to argue that British rule was an external system for India and was incapable of implementing the social and economic reforms necessary for the country's progress. He emerged as a prominent British statesman advocating for Indian independence (as a 'Dominion'). This experience prepared him for his future role, in 1947, of making the decisions regarding India's independence as the British Prime Minister.