Indira Gandhi ( India's first women prime minister ) | Early life and career.

Indira Priyadarshini Gandhi (19 November 1917 – 31 October 1984) served as the Prime Minister of India for three consecutive terms from 1966 to 1977 and again from 1980 until her assassination in 1984. She was India's first female Prime Minister.

Early Life and Career

Indira was born on 19 November 1917 into the politically influential Nehru family. Her father was Jawaharlal Nehru and her mother was Kamala Nehru. She had no blood or marital relation with Mahatma Gandhi. Her father, Jawaharlal Nehru, was a key figure in the Indian independence movement and became the first Prime Minister of independent India.

After completing her schooling in 1934-35, Indira enrolled at Visva-Bharati University, established by Rabindranath Tagore at Shantiniketan. Rabindranath Tagore himself gave her the name "Priyadarshini". She then went to England and took the entrance examination for Oxford University, but failed. After spending a few months at Badminton School in Bristol, she gained admission to Somerville College, Oxford, after passing the examination in 1937. During this time, she frequently met Feroze Gandhi. They were married on 16 March 1942 in a private Arya Samaj-Vedic ceremony at Anand Bhawan in Allahabad.

After returning to India from Oxford in 1941, she joined the Indian independence movement. In the 1950s, she informally served as her father's personal assistant during his tenure as the first Prime Minister of India. After her father's death in 1964, she was appointed as a member of the Rajya Sabha. Later, she became the Minister of Information and Broadcasting in Lal Bahadur Shastri's cabinet.

After the sudden death of Lal Bahadur Shastri, the then Congress Party president, K. Kamaraj played a crucial role in bringing Indira Gandhi to power as Prime Minister. Gandhi quickly demonstrated that she could win elections and dominate her opponents based on her popularity. She implemented more left-leaning economic policies and promoted agricultural productivity. Following the decisive victory in the 1971 Indo-Pakistani War, during a period of instability, she imposed a state of emergency in 1975.  She and the Congress Party suffered their first electoral defeat in the 1977 general elections. After returning to power in 1980, she faced an escalating conflict with Sikh separatists, primarily in Punjab, which ultimately culminated in her assassination by her own bodyguards in 1984.

Early Life

Indira was born on November 19, 1917, to Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru and his wife, Kamla Nehru. She was their only child. The Nehru family had roots in Brahmin families of Jammu and Kashmir and Delhi. Her maternal grandfather, Motilal Nehru, was a wealthy barrister from Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh. Jawaharlal Nehru was a prominent member of the Indian National Congress. Her father, Motilal Nehru, was a popular leader of the Indian independence movement. At the time of Indira's birth, Jawaharlal Nehru had joined the independence movement under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi.

Growing up under the care of her mother, who was mostly occupied with household chores due to poor health, Indira developed a sense of security and a somewhat reserved personality. Her grandfather and father's constant involvement in national politics made it difficult for her to socialize with friends. She had disagreements with her aunts (her father's sisters), including Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit, which continued into the political arena.

Indira formed an organization for children called the 'Monkey Brigade,' which made a small but significant contribution to the Indian independence movement by helping Congress leaders distribute sensitive publications and prohibited materials, and by participating in protests and flag marches. A frequently told story is that in the early 1930s, she secretly carried a crucial document about a major revolutionary plan from her father's house, which was under police surveillance, in her school bag.

In 1936, her mother, Kamla Nehru, passed away after a long illness with tuberculosis. Indira was 18 at the time, so she never experienced a stable family life during her childhood. She studied at prominent Indian, European, and British schools such as Shantiniketan, Badminton School, and Oxford. In the late 1930s, while studying at Somerville College, Oxford University in England, she became a member of the London-based Indian League, a pro-independence organization. While living in Europe and Britain, she met Parsi Congress activist Feroze Gandhi, and on March 16, 1942, just before the Quit India Movement launched by Mahatma Gandhi and the Congress Party, they married in a private Arya Samaj-Vedic ceremony at Anand Bhawan, Allahabad. In September 1942, the British authorities arrested her and imprisoned her without any charges. After more than 243 days in jail, she was released on May 13, 1943. In 1944, Indira and Feroze Gandhi's first child, Rajiv Gandhi, was born, and two years later, Sanjay Gandhi.

At the time of the Partition of India in 1947, she helped organize refugee camps and provide medical aid to the millions of refugees who had fled from Pakistan. This was her first major step into public service.

The Gandhi family later settled in Allahabad, where Feroze worked for a Congress Party newspaper and an insurance company. Their marriage was initially happy, but later, when Indira moved to New Delhi to live with her father, who was living alone and under great stress at 3 Motilal Nehru Marg (later renamed Teen Murti Marg) as Prime Minister, she became his trusted secretary and nurse. Her sons lived with her, but she eventually separated from Feroze, although they remained legally married.

When India's first general election came in 1951, Indira campaigned for both her father and her husband, who was contesting the Rae Bareli seat. Feroze had not consulted Nehru about contesting the election, and although he won, he decided to live separately in Delhi. Feroze established himself as a leader against political corruption by exposing a major scandal in government insurance companies, forcing Nehru's close associate, the Finance Minister, to resign.

At the height of their marital difficulties, Indira separated from her husband. However, her relationship with Feroze improved after his heart attack in 1958, shortly after a by-election. They grew closer during Feroze's recovery in Kashmir, where Indira cared for him. However, on September 8, 1960, while Indira was on a foreign trip with her father, Feroze passed away.

Ancient indian culture - Prehistoric Period ( stone Age ), Bronze Age ( Indus Valley Civilization )

 

Physically modern humans first arrived on the Indian subcontinent between 73,000 and 55,000 years ago. The oldest known human remains in South Asia date back 30,000 years. Sedentary life in South Asia began around 7000 BCE; by 4500 BCE, settled life had spread and gradually evolved into the Indus Valley Civilization. This was one of the three earliest cradles of Old World civilization, flourishing between 2500 BCE and 1900 BCE in what is today Pakistan and northwestern India. In the early second millennium BCE, due to persistent droughts, the population of the Indus Valley dispersed from large urban centers into villages. Between approximately 1800 and 1500 BCE, Indo-Aryan tribes arrived from Central Asia in several waves and settled in the northwestern region of India—present-day Punjab. The Vedic period (1500–500 BCE) of the Vedic people in northern India is renowned for the composition of a vast collection of hymns (the Vedas). The social structure was loosely stratified through the "Varna" system, which later evolved into the highly developed "Caste" system of today. These pastoral and nomadic Indo-Aryans expanded beyond Punjab into the Gangetic plains. Around 600 BCE, a second wave of urbanization occurred, resulting in the emergence of a new inter-regional culture; subsequently, small "Janapadas" (states) coalesced to form "Mahajanapadas" (large kingdoms). This period witnessed the rise of new ascetic movements and religious concepts, including the emergence of Jainism and Buddhism. These later religions interacted with the subcontinent's pre-existing religious cultures, leading to the rise of Hinduism.

Chandragupta Maurya overthrew the Nanda Empire and established the Mauryan Empire—the first great empire of ancient India. India's Mauryan Emperor Ashoka is widely recognized for his violent conquest of Kalinga, his historic conversion to Buddhism, and his subsequent efforts to propagate non-violence and peace throughout his empire. This era marks the rapid expansion of Shramana traditions.

The Mauryan Empire collapsed in 185 BCE, when the reigning Emperor Brihadratha was assassinated by his Commander-in-Chief, Pushyamitra Shunga. In the north and northeast of the subcontinent, the Shunga Empire fragmented into numerous smaller kingdoms. Meanwhile, in the northwest, the Greco-Bactrians established Indo-Greek kingdoms, which were subsequently displaced by successive invasions of the Indo-Scythian, Indo-Parthian, and Kushan empires. Emerging from the Greater Magadha region, the Gupta Empire—between the 4th and 6th centuries CE—reunified these territories, as evidenced by the Iron Pillar of Delhi. This period, characterized by a Hindu religious and intellectual renaissance, is known as India's "Classical Age" or "Golden Age." Various facets of Indian civilization, administration, culture, and religion spread across a vast expanse of Asia, leading to the establishment of states influenced by Indian culture throughout the region and giving rise to the concept of "Greater India."

Due to repeated invasions by the Huns and the loss of its core territories, the Gupta Empire gradually began to decline. The Hun invasions were successfully repelled by regional rulers, including Yashodharman (who was supported by the Later Guptas) and, subsequently, Harsha. The large-scale invasions by the Huns—and their subsequent assimilation into Indian society—paved the way for the rise of the Pratihara dynasty; a political entity characterized by its syncretic culture. The most significant event between the 7th and 11th centuries was the "Tripartite Struggle" centered on the city of Kannauj, which ultimately resulted in the victory of the Pratiharas.

Southern India saw the rise of multiple imperial powers from the middle of the fifth century. The Chola dynasty conquered southern India in the 11th century. In the early medieval period, Indian mathematics, including Hindu numerals, influenced the development of mathematics and astronomy in the Arab world, including the creation of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system.

Islamic conquests made limited inroads into modern Afghanistan and Sindh as early as the 8th century, followed by the invasions of Mahmud Ghazni. The Delhi Sultanate, established in 1206 by Central Asian Turks, ruled much of northern India in the 14th century. It was governed by various Turkic and Afghan dynasties, including the Indo-Turkic Tughlaqs. The empire declined in the late 14th century following the invasions of Timur and saw the advent of the Malwa, Gujarat, and Bahmani sultanates, the last of which split in 1518 into the five Deccan sultanates. The wealthy Bengal Sultanate also emerged as a major power, lasting over three centuries. During this period, multiple strong Hindu kingdoms, notably the Vijayanagara Empire and Rajput states under the Kingdom of Mewar emerged and played significant roles in shaping the cultural and political landscape of India.

The early modern period began in the 16th century, when the Mughal Empire conquered most of the Indian subcontinent, signaling the proto-industrialisation, becoming the biggest global economy and manufacturing power. The Mughals suffered a gradual decline in the early 18th century, largely due to the rising power of the Marathas, who took control of extensive regions of the Indian subcontinent, and numerous Afghan invasions. The East India Company, acting as a sovereign force on behalf of the British government, gradually acquired control of huge areas of India between the middle of the 18th and the middle of the 19th centuries. Policies of company rule in India led to the Indian Rebellion of 1857. India was afterwards ruled directly by the British Crown, in the British Raj. After World War I, a nationwide struggle for independence was launched by the Indian National Congress, led by Mahatma Gandhi. Later, the All-India Muslim League would advocate for a separate Muslim-majority nation state. The British Indian Empire was partitioned in August 1947 into the Dominion of India and Dominion of Pakistan, each gaining its independence.

Prehistoric Period (before approximately 3300 BCE)

stone Age

The expansion of hominins from Africa reached the Indian subcontinent approximately two million years ago—and possibly as early as 2.2 million years ago. This dating is based on evidence indicating the presence of "Homo erectus" in Indonesia 1.8 million years ago and in East Asia 1.36 million years ago; this is further corroborated by the discovery of stone tools at Riwat in Pakistan. Although claims regarding even older discoveries have been made, the dates assigned to them—based on the dating of river sediments—have not been independently verified.

The oldest hominin fossil remains found on the Indian subcontinent belong to "Homo erectus" or "Homo heidelbergensis" from the Narmada Valley in central India, and are estimated to date back approximately half a million years. Claims of finding even older fossils have been advanced, but these are generally considered unreliable. A review of archaeological evidence suggests that hominin settlement on the Indian subcontinent remained sporadic until approximately 700,000 years ago; by this time—or more precisely, around 250,000 years ago—it had spread across a vast geographical area.

According to Tim Dyson, an expert on the historical demography of South Asia:

Modern humans—"Homo sapiens"—originated in Africa. Subsequently, between approximately 60,000 and 80,000 years ago, small groups of these humans began entering the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent in intermittent waves. It appears that, initially, they arrived here via a coastal route. It is almost certain that "Homo sapiens" were present on the subcontinent 55,000 years ago, even if the oldest fossils discovered so far date back only about 30,000 years.

According to Michael D. Petraglia and Bridget Allchin:

Y-chromosome and Mt-DNA data support the idea that modern humans migrating out of Africa began to settle in South Asia. ... For most non-European populations, the average dates of coalescence (shared ancestry) fall between 73,000 and 55,000 years ago.

South Asian historian Michael H. Fisher states:

Scholars estimate that the first successful expansion of "Homo sapiens" (modern humans) out of Africa and across the Arabian Peninsula occurred between 80,000 and 40,000 years ago, although some unsuccessful migrations may have taken place even earlier. In every generation, some of their descendants pushed the human expansion further, spreading into whatever habitable lands they reached. One route of human arrival passed through the warm and fertile coastal regions of the Persian Gulf and the northern Indian Ocean. Eventually, between 75,000 and 35,000 years ago, various groups of humans entered India.

Archaeological evidence has been interpreted as indicating the presence of anatomically modern humans on the Indian subcontinent between 78,000 and 74,000 years ago, although this interpretation remains a subject of debate. As a result of modern humans settling in South Asia—initially living as hunter-gatherers in diverse, isolated locations—the region has become one of immense diversity; in terms of human genetic diversity, it ranks second only to Africa.

According to Tim Dyson:

Genetic research has also contributed in other ways to enhancing our understanding of the prehistory of the subcontinent's people. Notably, the level of genetic diversity in this region is exceptionally high. In fact, only the population of Africa exhibits greater genetic diversity. Another related fact is that the subcontinent provides strong evidence of 'founder' events. This refers to situations where a subgroup—such as a tribe—evolves from a very small number of 'original' individuals. Furthermore, compared to most other regions of the world, the people of the subcontinent are quite distinct, as they have practiced 'endogamy'—that is, the custom of marrying exclusively within their own group—at a relatively high level.

Neolithic

Sedentary life in this subcontinent began approximately 9,000 years ago on the western margins of the alluvial plains of the Indus River, gradually evolving into the Indus Valley Civilization of the third millennium BCE. According to Tim Dyson: "By about 7,000 years ago, agriculture was fully established in Balochistan... and gradually spread eastward into the Indus Valley." Michael Fisher adds the following detail to this account:

The earliest known example of a well-established and stable agrarian society is found at 'Mehrgarh,' situated in the hills between the Bolan Pass and the Indus plains. As early as 7000 BCE, communities there had begun to invest greater effort—beyond merely preparing the land—in selecting, sowing, tending, and harvesting specific grain-bearing plants. They also domesticated animals, including sheep, goats, pigs, and cattle (of both varieties—the humped zebu and the humpless type). For instance, through the castration of bulls, these animals—which had previously served primarily as a source of meat—gradually evolved into domesticated beasts of burden as well.

Bronze Age (c. 3300 – 1800 BC)

Indus Valley Civilization

The Bronze Age in the Indian subcontinent began around 3300 BCE. The Indus Valley region was one of the three earliest centers of civilization in the Old World; the Indus Valley Civilization was the most widespread of these, and at its peak, its population may have reached five million.

This civilization was primarily centered in the Indus River Valley—located in present-day Pakistan—while the Ghaggar-Hakra River Valley served as another major hub. The Mature Indus Civilization flourished from approximately 2600 to 1900 BCE, marking the advent of urban civilization on the Indian subcontinent. Its settlements included cities in present-day Pakistan—such as Harappa, Ganeriwala, and Mohenjo-daro—as well as cities in present-day India—such as Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, and Lothal.

The inhabitants of the ancient Indus River Valley—known as Harappans—developed new techniques in metallurgy and handicrafts, producing copper, bronze, lead, and tin. This civilization is renowned for its brick-built cities and drainage systems constructed along its streets; it is also believed that some form of municipal organization existed within it. The civilization also developed an Indus script—the oldest among ancient Indian scripts—which remains undeciphered to this day. Consequently, there is no direct evidence of the Harappan language, and its linguistic affiliation remains uncertain.

Following the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization, its inhabitants migrated from the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra river valleys toward the Himalayan foothills of the Ganges-Yamuna Valley.

Visual arts education - Cultural appropriation within the classroom and development of Visual arts education

 

Arts based on visual arts education

Visual arts education is the area of learning that is based upon visual art forms such as—drawing, painting, sculpture, printmaking. Within these forms of art may be designs in jewelry, pottery, weaving, fabrics, and design applied to more practical fields such as commercial graphics and home furnishings. Contemporary topics include photography, video, film, design, and computer art.

Overall, Art education focuses on students creating art, on learning to criticize or appreciate art, or some combination of the two. The key components of teaching art is different among different groups of people, depending on their teaching style, culture, or even the country that they live in. Visual Arts education has been adapted in many ways, even to those members of special education.

Visual arts education approaches

Art is often taught through drawing, painting, sculpture, installation, and mark making. Drawing is viewed as an empirical activity which involves seeing, interpreting and discovering appropriate marks to demonstrate an object, place, or thing based on an observation. Drawing instruction has been a component of formal education in the West since the Hellenistic period. In East Asia, arts education for nonprofessional artists typically focused on brushwork; calligraphy was numbered among the Six Arts of gentlemen in the Chinese Zhou dynasty, and calligraphy and Chinese painting were numbered among the four arts of scholar-officials in imperial China.

An alternative approach to art education involves an emphasis on imagination, both in interpreting and creating art. Many educators require student analysis and peer critique on artwork. This is to get students to consider the deeper meaning behind works, rather than just showing them a pretty picture. Art education is also about experimentation and purposeful play and linking their art to conceptual messages and personal experiences. Allowing students to connect a piece to emotion, helps them better understand how the artwork connects to the artist and their subject, developing their critical thinking skills. Alternative approaches, such as visual culture and issue-based approaches in which students explore societal and personal issues through art, also inform art education today.

Prominent curricular models for art education include:

A sixfold model divided into "Creative-Productive, Cultural-Historical and Critical-Responsive" components in some provinces of Canada

Discipline Based Art Education (DBAE) came to favor in the United States during the 1980s and 1990s, and it focused on specific skills including techniques, art criticism and art history. Heavily backed by the Getty Education Institute for the Arts, DBAE faded after the Institute ceased funding in 1998.

Teaching for Artistic Behavior (TAB) is a choice-based model that began in the 1970s in Massachusetts in the United States. TAB suggests that students should be the artists and be guided on their own individual artistic interests. TAB based curricular models have increased in popularity as classroom culture shifts from preference of direct instruction to student-centered and Inquiry-based learning.

In addition, especially in higher education in the liberal arts tradition, art is often taught as "art appreciation", a subject for aesthetic criticism rather than direct engagement.

Some studies show that strong art education programs have demonstrated increased student performance in other academic areas, due to art activities' exercising their brains' right hemispheres and DE lateralizing their thinking. Also see Betty Edwards' Drawing on the Right Side of the Brain.

Art education is not limited to formal educational institutions. Some professional artists provide private or semi-private instruction in their own studios. This may take the form of an apprenticeship in which the student learns from a professional artist while assisting the artist with their work. One form of this teaching style is the Atelier Method as exemplified by Gustave Moreau who taught Picasso, Braque and many other artists.

Apprenticeship

Historically art was taught in Europe via the atelier method system where artists took on apprentices who learned their trade in much the same way as that of craft guilds such as the stonemasons or goldsmiths. During their free time formal training took place in art workshops or, more often, in homes or alone outside. It was in these ateliers that artists learned the craft through apprenticeship to masters, a relationship that was controlled by guild statutes. Florentine contracts dating from the late 13th century state that the master was expected to clothe and feed the apprentice, who was called upon to be a faithful servant in return. An apprentice often paid the master during the early years of his education; assuming the apprenticeship was productive, the student would be compensated later in his training. Northern European workshops featured similar terms.

Initially, learning to draw was a priority in this system. Michelangelo recommended that a young painter spend a year on drawing alone, then six years grinding colors, preparing panels and using gold leaf, during which time the study of drawing would continue. Another six years would be required to master fresco and tempera painting.

Historically, design has had some precedence over the fine arts with schools of design being established all over Europe in the 18th century. These examples of skill and values from the early European art inspired later generations, including the Colonists of early America.

Cultural appropriation within the classroom

Individuals who employ cultural appropriation have the ability to produce works of considerable aesthetic merit. Using properties of art from different cultures such as decoration or emulation of creative process can foster a greater understanding and appreciation of crafts from different cultures. This technique can be appreciated in the production of African or Native-American mask making projects, where students emulate technique and explore new material use and construction methods which esteem those practices of different cultures.

Development of Visual arts education in different countries

Argentina

The leading country in the development of the arts in Latin America, in 1875 created the National Society for the Stimulus of the Arts, founded by painters Eduardo Schlieffen, Eduardo Savory, and other artists. In 1905, their guild was rechartered as the National Academy of Fine Arts, then in 1923, on the initiative of painter and academic Ernesto de la Cordova, became a department in the University of Buenos Aires, under the name of Superior Art School of the Nation. Currently, the country's leading educational organization for the arts is the UNA Universidad Nacional de las Artes.

Australia

Australian Universities which have Visual / Fine Art departments or courses within their institutions have moved from Studio Based teaching models, associated with Art Schools, to more integrated theoretical / practical emphasis. University of Western Australia has moved from a master's degree with theoretical emphasis to a theoretical BA Art degree.

Studio based teaching initiatives integrating contextual and media elements have been implemented as part of a national Studio Teaching Project supported by the Australian Learning and Teaching Council (ALTC) since 2007.

Egypt

The first modern art school in Egypt was opened in 1908 as the Cairo College of Fine Arts. These early art schools largely taught the Western aesthetic traditions. As a result, after independence there was an effort to incorporate Egyptian and Middle Eastern traditions into art and art appreciation courses. However, the process was slow; students at Cairo College of Fine Arts were not able to major in non-European art history until 1999.

Italy

Art schools were established in Italy as early as the 13th century, starting with a painting school in Venice founded by a Greek painter named Theophanes around 1200.

The Netherlands

The Dutch Art Teachers Association was founded in 1880 and began to publish a monthly magazine in 1884. Since the late 20th century, the growing diversity of Dutch society has made Dutch art and art education increasingly multicultural.

United Kingdom

Formal art education emerged in the United Kingdom in the early 19th century, motivated in part by a desire to match the quality of design work being done in France. The model initially adopted was that of the German commercial schools. Prince Albert was particularly influential in the creation of schools of Art in the UK.

Currently in the UK, the art curriculum is prescribed by the government's National Curriculum except in public or fee paying schools. Prince Charles has created The Prince's Drawing School in Hoxton to preserve the teaching of academic drawing.

Access Art

Access Art is a British arts charity and membership organization, working across the UK to further 'the advancement of visual arts education'. It is the leading provider of digital visual arts resources in the UK, with over 22,000 schools as paying members, using Access Art's educational materials in their teaching.

Founded in 1999 by Royal College of Art graduates, Paula Briggs and Sheila Ciccarelli and registering as a charity in 2004. Projects include:

"The first exhibition of work made by primary school children at The Fitzwilliam Museum in its 250 year history and was designed in partnership with Access Art.""The Inspire project demonstrates how a regional art museum can serve as a hub for teacher training and development and support the development of a community of practice around art and design education.

Natural environment - Components of the natural environment, Geological activity and Components of water on Earth

 

Components of the natural environment

The natural environment or natural world encompasses all biotic and abiotic things occurring naturally, meaning in this case not artificial. The term is most often applied to Earth or some parts of Earth. This environment encompasses the interaction of all living species, climate, weather and natural resources that affect human survival and economic activity. The concept of the natural environment can be distinguished as components:

Complete ecological units that function as natural systems without massive civilized human intervention, including all vegetation, microorganisms, soil, rocks, plateaus, mountains, the atmosphere and natural phenomena that occur within their boundaries and their nature.

Universal natural resources and physical phenomena that lack clear-cut boundaries, such as air, water and climate, as well as energy, radiation, electric charge and magnetism, not originating from civilized human actions.

In contrast to the natural environment is the built environment. Built environments are where humans have fundamentally transformed landscapes such as urban settings and agricultural land conversion, the natural environment is greatly changed into a simplified human environment. Even acts which seem less extreme, such as building a mud hut or a photovoltaic system in the desert, the modified environment becomes an artificial one. Though many animals build things to provide a better environment for themselves, they are not human, hence beaver dams and the works of mound-building termites are thought of as natural.

There are no absolutely natural environments on Earth. Naturalness usually varies in a continuum, from 100% natural in one extreme to 0% natural in the other. The massive environmental changes of humanity in the Anthropocene have fundamentally affected all natural environments including: climate change, biodiversity loss and pollution from plastic and other chemicals in the air and water. More precisely, we can consider the different aspects or components of an environment, and see that their degree of naturalness is not uniform. If, for instance, we take an agricultural field, and consider the mineralogic composition and the structure of its soil, we will find that whereas the first is quite similar to that of an undisturbed forest soil, the structure is quite different.

Composition

Earth science generally recognizes four spheres, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere and the biosphere as correspondent to rocks, water, air and life respectively. Some scientists include as part of the spheres of the Earth, the cryosphere (corresponding to ice) as a distinct portion of the hydrosphere, as well as the pedosphere (to soil) as an active and intermixed sphere. Earth science , is an all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth. There are four major disciplines in earth sciences, namely geography, geology, geophysics and geodesy. These major disciplines use physics, chemistry, biology, chronology and mathematics to build a qualitative and quantitative understanding of the principal areas or spheres of Earth.

Geological activity

The Earth's crust or lithosphere, is the outermost solid surface of the planet and is chemically, physically and mechanically different from underlying mantle. It has been generated greatly by igneous processes in which magma cools and solidifies to form solid rock. Beneath the lithosphere lies the mantle which is heated by the decay of radioactive elements. The mantle though solid is in a state of rheic convection. This convection process causes the lithospheric plates to move, albeit slowly. The resulting process is known as plate tectonics. Volcanoes result primarily from the melting of subducted crust material or of rising mantle at mid-ocean ridges and mantle plumes.

Components of water on Earth

Most water is found in various kinds of natural body of water.

Oceans

An ocean is a major body of saline water and a component of the hydrosphere. Approximately 71% of the surface of the Earth (an area of some 362 million square kilometers) is covered by ocean, a continuous body of water that is customarily divided into several principal oceans and smaller seas. More than half of this area is over 3,000 meters (9,800 ft) deep. Average oceanic salinity is around 35 parts per thousand (ppt) (3.5%), and nearly all seawater has a salinity in the range of 30 to 38 ppt. Though generally recognized as several separate oceans, these waters comprise one global, interconnected body of salt water often referred to as the World Ocean or global ocean. The deep seabeds are more than half the Earth's surface, and are among the least-modified natural environments. The major oceanic divisions are defined in part by the continents, various archipelagos and other criteria, these divisions are, in descending order of size, the Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, the Indian Ocean, the Southern Ocean and the Arctic Ocean.

Rivers

A river is a natural watercourse, usually freshwater, flowing toward an ocean, a lake, a sea or another river. A few rivers simply flow into the ground and dry up completely without reaching another body of water.

The water in a river is usually in a channel, made up of a stream bed between banks. In larger rivers there is often also a wider floodplain shaped by waters over-topping the channel. Flood plains may be very wide in relation to the size of the river channel. Rivers are a part of the hydrological cycle. Water within a river is generally collected from precipitation through surface runoff, groundwater recharge, springs and the release of water stored in glaciers and snowpacks.

Small rivers may also be called by several other names, including stream, creek and brook. Their current is confined within a bed and stream banks. Streams play an important corridor role in connecting fragmented habitats and thus in conserving biodiversity. The study of streams and waterways in general is known as surface

Lakes

A lake is a terrain feature, a body of water that is localized to the bottom of basin. A body of water is considered a lake when it is inland, is not part of an ocean and is larger and deeper than a pond.

Natural lakes on Earth are generally found in mountainous areas, rift zones and areas with ongoing or recent glaciation. Other lakes are found in endorheic basins or along the courses of mature rivers. In some parts of the world, there are many lakes because of chaotic drainage patterns left over from the last ice age. All lakes are temporary over geologic time scales, as they will slowly fill in with sediments or spill out of the basin containing them.

Human impact on water sources

Humans impact the water in different ways such as modifying rivers (through dams and stream channelization), urbanization and deforestation. These impact lake levels, groundwater conditions, water pollution, thermal pollution, and marine pollution. Humans modify rivers by using direct channel manipulation. We build dams and reservoirs and manipulate the direction of the rivers and water path. Dams can usefully create reservoirs and hydroelectric power. However, reservoirs and dams may negatively impact the environment and wildlife. Dams stop fish migration and the movement of organisms downstream. Urbanization affects the environment because of deforestation and changing lake levels, groundwater conditions, etc. Deforestation and urbanization go hand in hand. Deforestation may cause flooding, declining stream flow and changes in riverside vegetation. The changing vegetation occurs because when trees cannot get adequate water they start to deteriorate, leading to a decreased food supply for the wildlife in an area.

Atmosphere, climate and weather

The atmosphere of the Earth serves as a key factor in sustaining the planetary ecosystem. The thin layer of gases that envelops the Earth is held in place by the planet's gravity. Dry air consists of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 1% argon, inert gases and carbon dioxide. The remaining gases are often referred to as trace gases. The atmosphere includes greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and ozone. Filtered air includes trace amounts of many other chemical compounds. Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor and suspensions of water droplets and ice crystals seen as clouds. Many natural substances may be present in tiny amounts in an unfiltered air sample, including dust, pollen and spores, sea spray, volcanic ash and meteoroids. Various industrial pollutants also may be present, such as chlorine , fluorine compounds, elemental mercury, and sulfur compounds such as sulfur dioxide (SO2).

The ozone layer of the Earth's atmosphere plays an important role in reducing the amount of ultraviolet (UV) radiation that reaches the surface. As DNA is readily damaged by UV light, this serves to protect life at the surface. The atmosphere also retains heat during the night, thereby reducing the daily temperature extremes.

Environmental education - Approaches to Environmental education, The roots of Environmental education

 

What is environmental education?

Environmental education (EE) refers to organized efforts to teach how natural environments function, and particularly, how human beings can manage behavior and ecosystems to live sustainably. It is a multi-disciplinary field integrating disciplines such as biology, chemistry, physics, ecology, earth science, atmospheric science, mathematics, and geography.

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) states that EE is vital in imparting an inherent respect for nature among society and in enhancing public environmental awareness. UNESCO emphasises the role of EE in safeguarding future global developments of societal quality of life (QOL), through the protection of the environment, eradication of poverty, minimization of inequalities and insurance of sustainable development.

The term often implies education within the school system, from primary to post-secondary. However, it sometimes includes all efforts to educate the public and other audiences, including print materials, websites, media campaigns, etc. There are also ways that environmental education is taught outside the traditional classroom: aquariums, zoos, parks, and nature centers all have ways of teaching the public about the environment.

UNESCO and environmental awareness and education

UNESCO'S involvement in environmental awareness and education goes back to the very beginnings of the Organization, with the creation in 1948 of the IUCN (International Union for the Conservation of Nature, now the World Conservation Union), the first major non-governmental organization (NGO) mandated to help preserve the natural environment. UNESCO was also closely involved in convening the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm, Sweden in 1972, which led to the setting up of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Subsequently, for two decades, UNESCO and UNEP led the International Environmental Education Programme (1975-1995), which set out a vision for, and gave practical guidance on how to mobilize education for environmental awareness.

In 1976, UNESCO launched an environmental education newsletter 'Connect' as the official organ of the UNESCO-UNEP International Environmental Education Programme (IEEP). It served as a clearinghouse to exchange information on Environmental Education in general and to promote the aims and activities of the IEEP in particular, as well as being a network for institutions and individuals interested and active in environment education until 2007.

The long-standing cooperation between UNESCO and UNEP on environmental education also led to the co-organization of four major international conferences on environmental education since 1977: the First Intergovernmental Conference on Environmental Education in Tbilisi, Georgia (October 1977); the Conference "International Strategy for Action in the Field of Environmental Education and Training for the 1990s" in Moscow, Russian Federation (August 1987); the third International Conference "Environment and Society: Education and Public Awareness for Sustainability" at Thessaloniki, Greece (December 1997); and the Fourth International Conference on Environmental Education towards a Sustainable Future in Ahmedabad, India (November 2007). These meetings highlighted the pivotal role education plays in sustainable development.

It was at the Tbilisi conference in 1977 that the essential role of 'education in environmental matters' (as stated in the recommendations of the 1972 Stockholm Conference) was fully explored. Organized by UNESCO in cooperation with UNEP, this was the world's first intergovernmental conference on environmental education. In the subsequent Tbilisi Declaration, environment was interpreted in its 'totality—natural and built, technological and social (economic, political, cultural-historical, ethical, aesthetic)' . The goals formulated for environmental education went far beyond ecology in the curriculum and included development of a 'clear awareness of, and concern about, economic, social, political, and ecological interdependence in urban and rural areas' which became one of the major bases of ESD.

Approaches to Environmental education

Environmental education has multiple approaches that are based primarily on the benefits it brings to our society. One of the most important things to keep in mind when thinking about environmental education is communication. For there to be effective education, environmental information must be transmitted equally to citizens of all demographic groups. Critical, ethical and creative thinking must be developed in individuals when evaluating environmental issues. The development of skills and commitment to act independently and collaboratively in conjunction with society to address an environmental problem. Environmental education also has a broader approach which is that individuals are able to appreciate our surroundings and all the natural resources we have in order to develop positive environmental behavior that leads to change.

Central qualities of environmental education

There are a few central qualities involved in environmental education that are useful contributions for each individual. Through environmental education, real-world problem solving is enhanced, physical activity and dietary quality are strengthened, and communication and leadership are improved when working in groups.

Career Options in Environmental education

There are various different career paths one could delve into within environmental education. Many of these careers require discovering and planning how to resolve environmental issues occurring in today's world. The specific responsibilities associated with each career will depend in part on their physical location, taking into account what environmental issue is most prevalent in the area. A general outlook of some careers in this field are:

Federal Government Park Ranger- Responsible for protecting the national parks, historical sites, and national seashores across the United States including the wildlife and ecosystems within them. There are many qualifications in order for one to become a park ranger and some include: obtaining a bachelor's degree and a passing grade in the PEB. Some focuses within this field include: enforcing park rules, giving tours to groups for educational purposes, and protecting parks from forest fires.

Outdoor Education Teacher- Teach students by using outdoor field and classroom work. Some invite guest speakers who are experts in their field to help teach how the basic principles of science are implemented in the real world. Some requirements for this career include becoming CPR certified and having a bachelor's degree in either environmental science or a field related to it. It can be a problematic field as there is no concurrence on the central concepts that are taught as well as teachers do not agree on what constitutes an important environmental issue.

Environmental Scientist- Use of field work to research contamination in nature when writing plans in creating projects for environmental research. Environmental Scientists research topics such as air pollution, water quality, and wildlife. They also study how human health is affected by changes in the environment. Some requirements for this career are a bachelor's degree with a double major in environmental science and either biology, physics or chemistry.

Environmental Engineer- Involves the combination of biology/chemistry with engineering to generate ways to ensure the health of the planet. Scientific research is analyzed and projects are designed as a result of that research in order to come up with solutions to issues of the environment like air pollution. A bachelor's degree in civil engineering or general engineering is required as well as some experience in this field.

The roots of Environmental education

The roots of environmental education can be traced back as early as the 18th century when Jean-Jacques Rousseau stressed the importance of an education that focuses on the environment in Emile: or, On Education. Several decades later, Louis Agassiz, a Swiss-born naturalist, echoed Rousseau's philosophy as he encouraged students to "Study nature, not books." These two influential scholars helped lay the foundation for a concrete environmental education program, known as nature study, which took place in the late 19th and early 20th century.

The nature study movement used fables and moral lessons to help students develop an appreciation of nature and embrace the natural world. Anna Botsford Comstock, the head of the Department of Nature Study at Cornell University, was a prominent figure in the nature study movement. She wrote the Handbook for Nature Study in 1911 which used nature to educate children on cultural values. Comstock and the other leaders of the movement, such as Liberty Hyde Bailey, helped Nature Study garner tremendous amounts of support from community leaders, teachers, and scientists to change the science curriculum for children across the United States.

A new type of environmental education, Conservation Education, emerged in the US as a result of the Great Depression and Dust Bowl during the 1920s and 1930s. Conservation Education dealt with the natural world in a drastically different way from Nature Study because it focused on rigorous scientific training rather than natural history. Conservation Education was a major scientific management and planning tool that helped solve social, economic, and environmental problems during this time period.

The modern environmental education movement, which gained significant momentum in the late 1960s and early 1970s, stems from Nature Study and Conservation Education. During this time period, many events—such as the Cold War, the Civil rights movement and the Vietnam War—placed many Americans at odds with one another and the U.S. government. However, as more people began to fear the fallout from radiation, the chemical pesticides mentioned in Rachel Carson's Silent Spring, and the significant amounts of air pollution and waste, the public's concern for their health and the health of their natural environment led to a unifying phenomenon known as environmentalism. Environmental education was born of the realization that solving complex local and global problems cannot be accomplished by politicians and experts alone, but requires "the support and active participation of an informed public in their various roles as consumers, voters, employers, and business and community leaders." In 1960 the National Rural Studies Association (now known as the National Association for Environmental Education) was established in the UK to promote environmental education and support teachers in incorporating sustainability into their curricula.

Indian Rebellion of 1857 | The Expansion of the East India Company and Causes of the Revolt

The Indian Rebellion of 1857 was a major uprising against the rule of the British East India Company in India in 1857–58, which acted as the supreme power on behalf of the British Crown. The rebellion began on 10 May 1857 with a mutiny of Indian soldiers (Sepoys) of the Company at Meerut, 40 miles (64 km) northeast of Delhi. It later spread to the Gangetic Plain and parts of Central India, though there were also uprisings in the north and east. This rebellion posed a serious military threat to British power in the region, and it was not fully suppressed until the defeat of the rebels at Gwalior on 20 June 1858. On 1 November 1858, the British granted amnesty to all rebels not involved in murder, although they did not formally declare an end to hostilities until 8 July 1859.

The name of this rebellion is a matter of debate, and it has been called the Sepoy Mutiny, the Indian Mutiny, the Great Rebellion, the Revolt of 1857, and the First War of Independence.

The Expansion of the East India Company

Under the leadership of Robert Clive, the East India Company won the Battle of Plassey in 1757. The subsequent treaty granted the British the right to trade tax-free in Bengal. After winning the Battle of Buxar in 1764, the British gained complete control over Bengal. These two victories greatly enhanced British power and demonstrated that their military strength was superior to that of traditional Indian armies. The company soon expanded its territory around its bases in Bombay and Madras; later, the Anglo-Mysore Wars (1766-1799) and the Anglo-Maratha Wars (1772-1818) brought even larger parts of India under its control.

At the end of the 18th century, Governor-General Wellesley initiated a two-decade process of rapid expansion of the company's territories. This was achieved through subsidiary alliances with local rulers or through direct military annexation. Subsidiary alliances created princely states ruled by Hindu maharajas and Muslim nawabs. In 1843, the East India Company annexed Sindh after a bloody war. After the death of Maharaja Ranjit Singh in 1839, the weakened Sikh empire of Punjab came under British influence, and after the Second Anglo-Sikh War in 1849, Punjab, the North-West Frontier Province, and Kashmir were annexed. However, under the Treaty of Amritsar in 1846, Kashmir was immediately handed over to the Dogra dynasty of Jammu, becoming a princely state. In 1853, the title and annual pension of Nana Sahib, the adopted son of the last Maratha Peshwa, Baji Rao, were revoked. Berar was annexed in 1854 and Awadh in 1856.

Causes of the Revolt

The Revolt of 1857 was caused by several political, economic, religious, military, and social reasons.

Differences in Perspective

Many historians believe that the general public at that time thought that the British wanted to forcibly or deceptively convert them to Christianity. This was not entirely wrong; some Company officials did indeed promote conversions. However, the Company never officially sanctioned such conversions. The Company knew that religion could be a cause of rebellion in traditional Indian society. Earlier, in the 16th century, one reason for the decline of the Portuguese in India and Japan was their attempt to forcibly impose Christianity on the people.

Under Lord Dalhousie's Doctrine of Lapse, several states, such as Jhansi, Awadh, Satara, Nagpur, and Sambalpur, were annexed to British territory, and their rulers were made pensioners of the British government. The royal families, landlords, and soldiers became unemployed and powerless. They were ready to take revenge for the humiliation and loss of power inflicted by the British. During Lord Dalhousie's eight-year rule, the Company annexed ten million square miles of territory. Furthermore, many soldiers in the East India Company's Bengal Army were recruited from Awadh and were not unaware of the events happening there. The auction of the Nagpur royal family's jewels in Calcutta was seen as an insult to the royal family.

The Indians were also angered by the harsh rule of the Company, which was rapidly expanding and imposing Western culture. The British declared many customs prevalent among Hindus and Muslims at that time illegal, as they were considered undesirable by the British. This included the abolition of sati (widow burning). It is noteworthy that the Sikhs had already abolished this practice, and the famous social reformer of Bengal, Raja Ram Mohan Roy, was campaigning against it. These laws created resentment among certain sections of society, especially in Bengal. The British also abolished the practice of child marriage and banned female infanticide. They also abolished the practice of Thagi (religious banditry), though there is debate about whether Thagi was a religious cult or simply a group of common robbers.

Indians considered the British judicial system to be unjust. In 1853, the British Prime Minister, Lord Aberdeen, opened the civil service to Indians, but some educated Indians felt this reform was insufficient. Company officials had the right to appeal in many court cases against Indians. The Company imposed heavy taxes on Indians and confiscated their property if they failed to pay. Traditional Indian society viewed the Company's modernization efforts with suspicion. People considered the railway, which first started operating from Bombay, a dangerous invention that would bring disaster.

However, many historians believe these reforms were exaggerated, as the Company lacked the resources to implement them effectively, and their impact was negligible outside the area around Calcutta.

India's first prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru Biography | Jawaharlal Nehru's life

Jawaharlal Nehru (14 November 1889 – 27 May 1964) was India's first Prime Minister and a prominent figure in Indian politics both before and after independence. Under the guidance of Mahatma Gandhi, he emerged as a leading figure in the Indian independence movement and led India from its independence in 1947 until his death in 1964. As a Kashmiri Pandit, he was also known as Pandit Nehru, while Indian children affectionately called him Chacha Nehru (Uncle Nehru).

Nehru was chosen by the Congress Party to be the Prime Minister of independent India, although his leadership was effectively decided in 1941 when Gandhi designated him as his political heir and successor. As Prime Minister, he aimed to realize his vision for India. After the Indian Constitution came into effect in 1950, he launched an ambitious program of economic, social, and political reforms. Above all, by promoting a pluralistic, multi-party democracy, he transformed India from a colony into a republic. In foreign policy, he established India as a regional power in South Asia and played a leading role in the Non-Aligned Movement.

Under Nehru's leadership, the Congress Party emerged as a dominant force, winning elections consecutively in 1951, 1957, and 1962, and maintaining its grip on power at both national and state levels. Even in his later years, amidst political crises and following the 1962 Sino-Indian War, he 

remained popular with the Indian public.

Life

Jawaharlal Nehru was born in Allahabad. His father, Motilal Nehru (1861–1931), was a wealthy barrister and a Kashmiri Pandit. Motilal Nehru belonged to the Saraswat Kaul Brahmin community and was elected president of the Indian National Congress twice during the freedom struggle. His mother, Swarup Rani Thussu (1868–1938), came from a prominent Kashmiri Brahmin family in Lahore. She was Motilal's second wife; his first wife had died giving birth to a child. Jawaharlal was the eldest of three children; the other two were daughters. His elder sister, Vijaya Lakshmi, later became the first woman president of the United Nations General Assembly. His younger sister, Krishna Hutheesing, became a renowned writer and wrote several books about her family.

Jawaharlal Nehru received his education at some of the finest schools and universities in the world. He attended Harrow School and then Trinity College, Cambridge (London). He later obtained a law degree from Cambridge University. He spent seven years in England, during which time he developed a keen interest in Fabian socialism and Irish nationalism.

Jawaharlal Nehru returned to India in 1912 and began practicing law. In 1916, he married Kamala Nehru. In 1917, Jawaharlal Nehru joined the Home Rule League. His real political awakening came two years later, in 1919, when he came into contact with Mahatma Gandhi. At that time, Gandhi had launched a movement against the Rowlatt Act. Nehru was greatly influenced by Gandhi's active but peaceful non-cooperation movement.

Nehru also adapted his family to Gandhi's teachings. Jawaharlal and Motilal Nehru gave up Western clothes and expensive items. They began wearing khadi kurta and Gandhi caps. Jawaharlal Nehru actively participated in the Non-Cooperation Movement of 1920–1922 and was arrested for the first time during this period. He was released after a few months. Jawaharlal Nehru was elected as the president of the Allahabad Municipal Corporation in 1924 and served as the city's chief executive for two years. In 1926, he resigned citing a lack of cooperation from the British authorities.

From 1926 to 1928, Jawaharlal Nehru served as the General Secretary of the All India Congress Committee. In 1928-1929, the annual session of the Congress was held under the chairmanship of Motilal Nehru. At this session, Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose supported the demand for complete political independence, while Motilal Nehru and other leaders supported the demand for Dominion Status within the British Empire. To resolve this issue, Gandhi proposed a compromise: giving Britain two years to grant Dominion Status to India, and if they failed to do so, the Congress would launch a national movement for complete political independence. Nehru and Bose insisted that this period be reduced to one year. The British government did not respond.

In December 1929, the annual session of the Congress was held in Lahore, where Jawaharlal Nehru was elected as the President of the Congress Party. This session also passed a resolution demanding 'Purna Swaraj' (complete independence). On January 26, 1930, Jawaharlal Nehru hoisted the flag of independent India in Lahore. Gandhi also launched the Civil Disobedience Movement in 1930. This movement was quite successful and forced the British government to acknowledge the need for major political reforms.

When the British government implemented the Government of India Act of 1935, the Congress Party decided to contest the elections. Nehru himself did not contest the elections, but he campaigned vigorously for the party throughout the country. The Congress formed governments in almost every province and won a majority of seats in the Central Assembly.

Nehru was elected President of the Congress in 1936 and 1937. He was arrested during the Quit India Movement in 1942 and released in 1945. He played a crucial role in the negotiations with the British government for the independence of India and Pakistan in 1947.

Constitution of India | Constituent Assembly and Parts of the Indian Constitution

November 26 is celebrated as Constitution Day in India, while January 26 is celebrated as Republic Day. The Government of India Act of 1935 is considered the main source of inspiration for the Indian Constitution. The Indian Constitution is one of the longest written constitutions of any democratic country in the world.

Constituent Assembly

The Indian Constituent Assembly was elected in July 1946. Its first meeting was held in December 1946. Shortly after, the country was divided into two parts – India and Pakistan. The Constituent Assembly also split into two – the Indian Constituent Assembly and the Pakistani Constituent Assembly.

The assembly that drafted the Indian Constitution had 299 members, and Dr. Rajendra Prasad was its president. The Constituent Assembly completed its work on November 26, 1949, and the Constitution came into effect on January 26, 1950. In commemoration of this day, India celebrates Republic Day every year on January 26.  The entire process of drafting the Indian Constitution took two years, eleven months, and 18 days.

Brief Introduction

The Indian Constitution currently has 470 articles, 12 schedules, and 25 parts. However, when it was being drafted, the original constitution had 395 articles, 22 parts, and only 8 schedules. The constitution provides for a parliamentary system of government with a federal structure, with some exceptions. The President is the constitutional head of the executive at the Union level. According to Article 79 of the Indian Constitution, the Parliament of India consists of the President and two Houses – the Rajya Sabha and the Lok Sabha. The President, as the head of state, acts on the advice of the Council of Ministers headed by the Prime Minister. Thus, the real executive power is vested in the Council of Ministers headed by the Prime Minister, who is currently Narendra Modi. The Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha. Every state has a Legislative Assembly. Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana also have a Legislative Council. Every state has a Governor, in whom the executive power of the state is vested. The Council of Ministers, headed by the Chief Minister, advises the Governor in the exercise of his executive functions. The State Council of Ministers is responsible to the State Legislative Assembly. The Seventh Schedule of the Constitution distributes legislative powers between the Parliament and the State Legislatures. It also specifies the powers of different levels of government to levy taxes and duties. Residual powers are vested in the Parliament.

Parts of the Indian Constitution

The Indian Constitution is divided into 22 parts and contains 395 articles and 12 schedules.

History

After World War II, in July 1945, Britain announced its new policy regarding India and sent a three-member Cabinet Mission to India to formulate a constitution. After India gained independence on August 15, 1947, the Constituent Assembly was formed and commenced its work on December 9, 1947. The members of the Constituent Assembly were elected by the members of the legislative assemblies of the Indian states. Jawaharlal Nehru, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, Dr. Rajendra Prasad, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, and Maulana Abul Kalam Azad were among the prominent members of this assembly. The Constituent Assembly deliberated for a total of 114 days over a period of 2 years, 11 months, and 18 days. It held a total of 12 sessions, and on the final day, 284 members signed the Constitution. The drafting of the Constitution involved 166 days of meetings. The press and the public were allowed to attend these meetings. All 389 members of the Constituent Assembly played a significant role in drafting the Indian Constitution. The Indian Constitution was heavily influenced by the Government of India Act of 1935; approximately 250 articles were taken from that Act.

Structure of the Indian Constitution

The Indian Constitution currently comprises the following:

A preamble,

25 parts and 470 articles,

12 schedules,

5 appendices,

105 amendments.

(So far, 127 Constitution Amendment Bills have been introduced in Parliament, of which 105 have been passed and have become Constitution Amendment Acts. The 124th Constitution Amendment Bill, which provides for reservation for Economically Weaker Sections within the general category in educational institutions, was passed with special majority under Article 368 on January 9, 2019.  On August 8, 2016, Parliament passed the 101st Constitution Amendment Act, which introduced the Goods and Services Tax (GST).)

Health - Important facts related to health, History, Determinants of health and Potential health problems

Important facts related to health 

Health has a variety of definitions, which have been used for different purposes over time. In general, it refers to physical and emotional well-being, especially that associated with normal functioning of the human body, absent of disease, pain (including mental pain), or injury.

Health can be promoted by encouraging healthful activities, such as regular physical exercise and adequate sleep, and by reducing or avoiding unhealthful activities or situations, such as smoking or excessive stress. Some factors affecting health are due to individual choices, such as whether to engage in a high-risk behavior, while others are due to structural causes, such as whether the society is arranged in a way that makes it easier or harder for people to get necessary healthcare services. Still, other factors are beyond both individual and group choices, such as genetic disorders.

History

The meaning of health has evolved over time. In keeping with the biomedical perspective, early definitions of health focused on the theme of the body's ability to function; health was seen as a state of normal function that could be disrupted from time to time by disease. An example of such a definition of health is: "a state characterized by anatomic, physiologic, and psychological integrity; ability to perform personally valued family, work, and community roles; ability to deal with physical, biological, psychological, and social stress". Then, in 1948, in a radical departure from previous definitions, the World Health Organization (WHO) proposed a definition that aimed higher, linking health to well-being, in terms of "physical, mental, and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease and infirmity". Although this definition was welcomed by some as being innovative, it was also criticized for being vague and excessively broad and was not construed as measurable. For a long time, it was set aside as an impractical ideal, with most discussions of health returning to the practicality of the biomedical model.

Just as there was a shift from viewing disease as a state to thinking of it as a process, the same shift happened in definitions of health. Again, the WHO played a leading role when it fostered the development of the health promotion movement in the 1980s. This brought in a new conception of health, not as a state, but in dynamic terms of resiliency, in other words, as "a resource for living". In 1984, WHO revised the definition of health defined it as "the extent to which an individual or group is able to realize aspirations and satisfy needs and to change or cope with the environment. Health is a resource for everyday life, not the objective of living; it is a positive concept, emphasizing social and personal resources, as well as physical capacities." Thus, health referred to the ability to maintain homeostasis and recover from adverse events. Mental, intellectual, emotional and social health referred to a person's ability to handle stress, to acquire skills, to maintain relationships, all of which form resources for resiliency and independent living. This opens up many possibilities for health to be taught, strengthened and learned.

Since the late 1970s, the federal Healthy People Program has been a visible component of the United States' approach to improving population health. In each decade, a new version of Healthy People is issued, featuring updated goals and identifying topic areas and quantifiable objectives for health improvement during the succeeding ten years, with assessment at that point of progress or lack thereof. Progress has been limited to many objectives, leading to concerns about the effectiveness of Healthy People in shaping outcomes in the context of a decentralized and uncoordinated US health system. Healthy People 2020 gives more prominence to health promotion and preventive approaches and adds a substantive focus on the importance of addressing social determinants of health. A new expanded digital interface facilitates use and dissemination rather than bulky printed books as produced in the past. The impact of these changes to Healthy People will be determined in the coming years.

Systematic activities to prevent or cure health problems and promote good health in humans are undertaken by health care providers. Applications with regard to animal health are covered by the veterinary sciences. The term "healthy" is also widely used in the context of many types of non-living organizations and their impacts for the benefit of humans, such as in the sense of healthy communities, healthy cities or healthy environments. In addition to health care interventions and a person's surroundings, a number of other factors are known to influence the health status of individuals. These are referred to as the "determinants of health", which include the individual's background, lifestyle, economic status, social conditions and spirituality; Studies have shown that high levels of stress can affect human health.

In the first decade of the 21st century, the conceptualization of health as an ability opened the door for self-assessments to become the main indicators to judge the performance of efforts aimed at improving human health. It also created the opportunity for every person to feel healthy, even in the presence of multiple chronic diseases or a terminal condition, and for the re-examination of determinants of health (away from the traditional approach that focuses on the reduction of the prevalence of diseases).

Determinants of health

In general, the context in which an individual lives is of great importance for both his health status and quality of life. It is increasingly recognized that health is maintained and improved not only through the advancement and application of health science, but also through the efforts and intelligent lifestyle choices of the individual and society. According to the World Health Organization, the main determinants of health include the social and economic environment, the physical environment, and the person's individual characteristics and behaviors.

More specifically, key factors that have been found to influence whether people are healthy or unhealthy include the following:

Education and literacy

Employment/working conditions

Income and social status

Physical environments

Social environments

Social support networks

Biology and genetics

Culture

Gender

Health care services

Healthy child development

Personal health practices and coping skills

An increasing number of studies and reports from different organizations and contexts examine the linkages between health and different factors, including lifestyles, environments, health care organization and health policy, one specific health policy brought into many countries in recent years was the introduction of the sugar tax. Beverage taxes came into light with increasing concerns about obesity, particularly among youth. Sugar-sweetened beverages have become a target of anti-obesity initiatives with increasing evidence of their link to obesity.—such as the 1974 Lalonde report from Canada; the Alameda County Study in California; and the series of World Health Reports of the World Health Organization, which focuses on global health issues including access to health care and improving public health outcomes, especially in developing countries.

The concept of the "health field," as distinct from medical care, emerged from the Lalonde report from Canada. The report identified three interdependent fields as key determinants of an individual's health. These are:

Biomedical: all aspects of health, physical and mental, developed within the human body as influenced by genetic make-up.

Environmental: all matters related to health external to the human body and over which the individual has little or no control;

Lifestyle: the aggregation of personal decisions (i.e., over which the individual has control) that can be said to contribute to, or cause, illness or death;

The maintenance and promotion of health is achieved through different combination of physical, mental, and social well-being—a combination sometimes referred to as the "health triangle." The WHO's 1986 Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion further stated that health is not just a state, but also "a resource for everyday life, not the objective of living. Health is a positive concept emphasizing social and personal resources, as well as physical capacities."

Focusing more on lifestyle issues and their relationships with functional health, data from the Alameda County Study suggested that people can improve their health via exercise, enough sleep, spending time in nature, maintaining a healthy body weight, limiting alcohol use, and avoiding smoking. Health and illness can co-exist, as even people with multiple chronic diseases or terminal illnesses can consider themselves healthy.

The environment is often cited as an important factor influencing the health status of individuals. This includes characteristics of the natural environment, the built environment and the social environment. Factors such as clean water and air, adequate housing, and safe communities and roads all have been found to contribute to good health, especially to the health of infants and children. Some studies have shown that a lack of neighborhood recreational spaces including natural environment leads to lower levels of personal satisfaction and higher levels of obesity, linked to lower overall health and well-being. It has been demonstrated that increased time spent in natural environments is associated with improved self-reported health, suggesting that the positive health benefits of natural space in urban neighborhoods should be taken into account in public policy and land use.

Genetics, or inherited traits from parents, also play a role in determining the health status of individuals and populations. This can encompass both the predisposition to certain diseases and health conditions, as well as the habits and behaviors individuals develop through the lifestyle of their families. For example, genetics may play a role in the manner in which people cope with stress, either mental, emotional or physical. For example, obesity is a significant problem in the United States that contributes to poor mental health and causes stress in the lives of many people. One difficulty is the issue raised by the debate over the relative strengths of genetics and other factors; interactions between genetics and environment may be of particular importance.

Potential health problems

A number of health issues are common around the globe. Disease is one of the most common. According to GlobalIssues.org, approximately 36 million people die each year from non-communicable diseases, including cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes and chronic lung disease.

Among communicable diseases, both viral and bacterial, AIDS/HIV, tuberculosis, and malaria are the most common, causing millions of deaths every year.

Another health issue that causes death or contributes to other health problems is malnutrition, especially among children. One of the groups malnutrition affects most is young children. Approximately 7.5 million children under the age of 5 die from malnutrition, usually brought on by not having the money to find or make food.

Bodily injuries are also a common health issue worldwide. These injuries, including bone fractures and burns, can reduce a person's quality of life or can cause fatalities including infections that resulted from the injury.

Lifestyle choices are contributing factors to poor health in many cases. These include smoking cigarettes, and can also include a poor diet, whether it is overeating or an overly constrictive diet. Inactivity can also contribute to health issues and also a lack of sleep, excessive alcohol consumption, and neglect of oral hygiene. There are also genetic disorders that are inherited by the person and can vary in how much they affect the person .

Although the majority of these health issues are preventable, a major contributor to global ill health is the fact that approximately 1 billion people lack access to health care systems. Arguably, the most common and harmful health issue is that a great many people do not have access to quality remedies.

Physical education - Curriculum Approach to Physical Education, Five Learning Bodies in PE (Core Learning Domains)

 

Physical education is an academic subject taught in schools worldwide, including primary, secondary, and sometimes tertiary education. It is often referred to as Phys. Ed. or PE, and in the United States, it is informally called gym class or gym. Physical education generally focuses on developing physical fitness, motor skills, health awareness, and social interaction through activities such as sports, exercise, and movement education. Although syllabi vary from country to country, the general objective of PE is to promote lifelong physical activity and well-being. Unlike other academic subjects, physical education is unique in that it engages students in the psychomotor, cognitive, affective, social, and cultural domains of learning. Physical education content varies internationally, as physical activities often reflect the geographical, cultural, and environmental characteristics of each region. Although the purpose of physical education is debated, one of its main objectives is generally considered to be socializing young people and empowering them to value and participate in diverse movement and physical activity cultures.

Five Learning Bodies (Core Learning Domains) in PE

Previously, the field of physical education focused on three learning domains: affective, cognitive, and psychomotor. However, more recently, scholarship in physical education has recognized two additional learning domains: social and cultural. Recently, physical education researchers in Australia, Sweden, and the United Kingdom have reframed the domains of learning in physical education to understand them as five learning bodies: the moving body, the thinking body, the emotional body, the social body, and the cultural body. This shift was made using academic literature in physical education and education at large.

Moving Body: This dimension emphasizes the development of physical competence and motor skills. This includes students' ability to perform various movements with control, coordination, and efficiency, which forms the foundation of traditional PE activities.

Thinking Body: In addition to physical movement, this aspect focuses on cognitive engagement. This includes understanding the rules, strategies, and concepts associated with physical activity and promoting critical thinking, decision-making, and reflective practice among students.

Social Body: This dimension highlights the importance of social interactions and relationships in PE settings. It considers how students collaborate, communicate, and build relationships through physical activity, thereby fostering teamwork, empathy, and a sense of community.

Emotional Body: Recognizing the emotional experiences associated with physical activity, this dimension addresses feelings such as joy, frustration, confidence, and anxiety. It underscores the role of emotions in motivation, engagement, and overall well-being in PE.

Cultural Body: This component acknowledges the cultural context and identity that students bring to PE. This includes understanding how cultural backgrounds, values, and societal norms influence students' participation in and experience of physical activity.

By combining these five learning bodies, teachers can provide a holistic approach to PE that goes beyond the traditional focus on physical activity alone. This framework encourages teachers to consider multiple aspects of student development, fostering inclusive and meaningful learning experiences in physical education.

Curriculum Approach to Physical Education

Just like education, there are different curricular approaches to physical education. Ennis identified three main curricular approaches to physical education: factory, garden, and journey.

Factory Model: The factory model views education like an assembly line, where students are expected to master specific skills through standardized instruction and assessment. In physical education, this might look like a basketball unit where all students learn the same drills (e.g., dribbling, shooting, passing) and are assessed using performance rubrics or timed tasks. The teacher leads the class with a focus on efficiency, discipline, and outcome-based results. While this ensures consistency, it can ignore individual learning needs or interests.

Example: A teacher sets up skill stations and times students on lay-up drills, assigning scores based on accuracy and speed.

Garden Model: The garden model views students as individuals with unique potential who need to be nurtured. Under this model, physical education emphasizes emotional well-being, inclusivity, and student choice. A teacher can design activities that allow for varying levels of participation and success, such as yoga, dance, or cooperative games, while ensuring that every student feels safe and supported. The emphasis is on enjoyment, personal growth, and developing a positive relationship with movement.

Example: During a fitness unit, students set personal health goals (e.g., improving flexibility, managing stress) and reflect on their progress weekly with teacher feedback.

Journey Model: The journey model views PE as a process of exploration, where learning progresses over time and is guided by curiosity and reflection. Teachers and students work together to create experiences that are meaningful and relevant. In this model, a teacher might facilitate a project where students design their own games, explore cultural sports, or explore how physical activity impacts mental health. The emphasis is on personal meaning, collaboration, and building connections outside the classroom.

Example: Students work in groups to research traditional indigenous games, learn the rules, and then teach them to their peers while discussing the cultural significance of each activity.

These curricular approaches are never fully adopted by schools or teachers. Rather, schools may use a combination of these approaches to meet students' learning needs. Furthermore, each approach is needed at different times. That said, skill mastery often occurs at the factory end of this continuum, while critical thinking skills are often part of the journey end of the continuum.

A specific approach to physical education that is not included in the three models above is a critical approach to curriculum. A critical approach often includes attention to the social and cultural aspects of physical education. Thus, a part of this instruction includes teaching about the role of inequality in health, movement, and the body.

Critical Approach: A critical curriculum approach to physical education aims to transform the subject from a place of physical performance and normative repetition to a place of critical thinking and social change. Rather than simply delivering content or developing physical skills, a critical curriculum invites students and teachers to question whose bodies, knowledge, and experiences are valued in PE, and to work toward creating a more robust learning environment.

Example: Students might reflect on gameplay and discuss how the current rules of a game limit participation, teamwork, and fairness. They would then work together to improve the rules for the next game.