East India Company in India | History of East India Company

The East India Company was founded in 1600 and dissolved in 1874. It was established to trade in the Indian Ocean region, initially with the East Indies (the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia) and later with East Asia. The company eventually established control over large parts of the Indian subcontinent and Hong Kong. At its peak, the company was, in many ways, the largest corporation in the world and had its own armed forces, including three Presidency armies with approximately 260,000 soldiers.

Initially named "The Governor and Company of Merchants of London Trading into the East Indies," the company was responsible for approximately half of the world's trade in the mid-1700s and early 1800s, particularly in goods such as cotton, silk, indigo, sugar, salt, spices, ginger, tea, precious stones, and later, opium. The company also initiated British rule in the Indian subcontinent.

Ultimately, the company ruled over large parts of the Indian subcontinent, wielding military power and assuming administrative responsibilities. The company's territory in the region gradually expanded after the Battle of Plassey in 1757, and by 1858, most of what is now India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh was either directly under the company's control or a princely state closely allied to it by treaty. Following the Indian Rebellion of 1857, under the Government of India Act of 1858, the British government assumed direct control over what is now Bangladesh, Pakistan, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and India, thus establishing the British Indian Empire.

Later, despite increasing government intervention, the company faced financial difficulties. Under the provisions of the East India Stock Dividend Redemption Act passed a year earlier, the company was dissolved in 1874, as by then the Government of India Act had rendered it an unnecessary, powerless, and outdated institution. The British government took over the administrative responsibilities of the company, and its military units were incorporated into the British army.

History

Beginnings

In 1577, Francis Drake set sail from England on an expedition to plunder Spanish settlements in South America in search of gold and silver. Sailing on the ship named the Golden Hind, he completed this task and then crossed the Pacific Ocean in 1579, a route then known only to the Spanish and Portuguese. Drake eventually reached the East Indies, arriving near the Moluccas, known as the Spice Islands, and met with Sultan Babullah. In exchange for linen, gold, and silver, the English obtained various types of valuable spices, including cloves and nutmeg. Drake returned to England in 1580 and became a national hero; his voyage brought considerable wealth to the English treasury and yielded investors a return of approximately 5,000 percent.

Immediately following the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588, the seizure of Spanish and Portuguese ships and their cargo gave English adventurers the opportunity to travel the world in search of riches. London merchants requested permission from Elizabeth I to sail into the Indian Ocean. Their aim was to break the Spanish and Portuguese monopoly on the Far Eastern trade. Elizabeth granted permission, and in 1591, James Lancaster and two other ships, financed by the Levant Company, sailed on the Bonaventure from the Cape of Good Hope to the Arabian Sea, thus becoming the first English expedition to reach India.

The greatest prize for promoting English trade was the capture of the large Portuguese carrack ship, Madre de Deus, by Walter Raleigh and the Earl of Cumberland at the Battle of Flores on August 13, 1592. When it arrived in Dartmouth, it was the largest ship ever seen in England, and it carried chests filled with precious stones, pearls, gold, silver coins, ambergris, textiles, carpets, black pepper, cloves, cinnamon, nutmeg, benzoin (a highly fragrant balsamic resin used in perfumes and medicines), red dye, cochineal, and ivory. The ship's logbook was also invaluable, containing important information about trade routes to China, India, and Japan. In 1596, three more English ships set sail for the East, but all were lost at sea. However, a year later, Ralph Fitch arrived; he was an adventurous trader who, along with his companions, had undertaken an amazing nine-year journey through Mesopotamia, the Persian Gulf, the Indian Ocean, India, and Southeast Asia. Fitch was consulted on matters relating to India and provided Lancaster with even more valuable information.

Indian Home Rule movement | Objectives of the Home Rule Movement

The Home Rule Movement was the All India Home Rule League, a political organization founded by Bal Gangadhar Tilak in 1916. Its objective was to promote the national demand for self-rule in India under the banner of "Home Rule." Its goal was to achieve dominion status for India within the British Empire. At that time, Australia, Canada, South Africa, New Zealand, and Newfoundland were already dominions within the British Empire.

When World War I began, the liberal faction of the Indian National Congress decided to support Britain. They believed that if India supported Britain, Britain would grant India independence after the war. However, the Indian National Congress soon realized that Britain would never do so, and Indian leaders became dissatisfied and began exploring other avenues. This discontent led to the emergence of the Home Rule Movement. Between 1915 and 1916, two Home Rule Leagues were established: the Pune Home Rule League founded by Bal Gangadhar Tilak and the Madras Home Rule League founded by Annie Besant. The Home Rule League functioned as a subsidiary organization of the Indian National Congress. The movement aimed to achieve self-rule, but it did not advocate the use of violence.

During the Home Rule Movement, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Annie Besant designed a flag in 1917. This flag consisted of five red and four green horizontal stripes, and also featured seven stars. However, this flag did not gain widespread popularity.

Introduction

Mrs. Annie Besant was from Ireland. She was a leader of the Theosophical Society in India. She was deeply influenced by Indian civilization and culture. Therefore, she left Ireland and settled in India, eventually coming to consider India her home. At that time in Ireland, the Irish Home Rule League had been established under the leadership of Irish leader Redmond. The objective of this league was to achieve self-government for Ireland through constitutional and peaceful means. In 1913, when Annie Besant went to England, the Irish Home Rule League asked her to launch a Home Rule movement for independence in India. Mrs. Annie Besant wanted India to have the same level of self-government as other British colonies, meaning she wanted India to achieve dominion status. With this objective in mind, upon returning to India, she joined the Congress Party and, by uniting both moderate and radical leaders, launched the Home Rule movement.

Objectives of the Home Rule Movement

The Home Rule Movement was a constitutional movement. The main objectives of this movement were as follows:

(1) Its main objective was to achieve self-government in India. Annie Besant wanted India to have the same degree of self-government as other colonies in the British Empire. Explaining the objective of the Home Rule Movement, Annie Besant wrote in the first issue of her weekly journal 'Commonweal': “By political reform we mean the establishment of self-government from village panchayats to district boards and municipalities, provincial assemblies and a national parliament. This national parliament would have the same powers as the legislatures of self-governing colonies. Whatever name it may be given, and when representatives of self-governing states are admitted to the British Parliament, India should also have representatives in that Parliament.”

(2) The objective of this movement was neither to drive the British out of India nor to hamper their war efforts. On the contrary, they argued that a self-governing India would be more helpful to the British during the war. Indians were supporting the British in the war because they hoped that the British would grant them self-government after the war. Annie Besant believed that if the British government granted self-government during the war, Indians would support the British war efforts with greater enthusiasm and more resources. Annie Besant believed that a subjugated India could not be as helpful to the British Empire as a free India. Thus, the objective of this movement was indirectly to support Britain in the war.

(3) Another objective of the Home Rule Movement was to prevent Indian politics from taking a radical turn. Annie Besant carefully studied the political trends in India and concluded that if a peaceful and constitutional movement was not started, revolutionary and terrorist elements would dominate Indian politics. To achieve this objective, she considered starting a peaceful and constitutional movement as the best way. According to Dr. Zakaria, “Her plan was to keep the radical nationalists separate from the revolutionaries. She wanted to pacify the Indians by giving them self-government within the British Empire.” To achieve this objective, she launched the Home Rule Movement with the aim of reducing the influence of revolutionaries in Indian politics.

(4) Indian politics had become stagnant during the war, and the national movement had stalled due to a lack of active programs and effective leadership. Therefore, it was essential to awaken the Indian people from their lethargy. To achieve this objective, Annie Besant launched the Home Rule Movement. Annie Besant stated, "I am an 'agitator' for India; my work is to awaken the sleeping Indians, so that they may rise and work for their country." The Home Rule Movement differed from the earlier liberal movement. It was not merely a demand for self-rule for India, but rather a demand for a fundamental right—that self-rule was the birthright of the Indians. Tilak had said, "Freedom is my birthright, and I shall have it." Annie Besant asserted that Home Rule was India's right, and it was absurd to claim that it should be granted as a reward for loyalty. As a nation, India was demanding its rightful place within the British Empire. India had made this demand before the war, would make it during the war, and would continue to make it after the war. But this right was being demanded not as a reward, but as a birthright; there should be no misunderstanding about this.

Background, Commencement, and Progress of the Movement

Bal Gangadhar Tilak was released from prison on June 16, 1914, after completing his six-year sentence. He had spent most of his imprisonment in Mandalay (Burma). Upon returning to India, he found that the country had undergone significant changes. Arvind Ghosh, the revolutionary leader of the Swadeshi movement, had renounced worldly life and was residing in Pondicherry. Lala Lajpat Rai was in America. The Indian National Congress was still reeling from the shock of the Surat split, the repressive actions of the British against revolutionaries, and the disillusionment of the moderate nationalists following the constitutional reforms of 1909.

Tilak believed that the first step should be to bring the extremists back into the Congress. He was convinced that the Indian National Congress had become synonymous with the Indian national movement, and that no national movement could succeed without its support. To win over the moderates, gain their trust, and prevent future repressive actions by the British government, he stated, "I openly declare that we want the same kind of administrative reforms in India as the nationalists in Ireland are demanding. We have no intention of ending British rule. I have no hesitation in saying that the violent incidents that occurred in various parts of India are not only against my ideology, but they have also slowed down our political progress." He reiterated his loyalty to the British government and urged the Indian people to support the British government during this crisis.

Now, all the leaders of the moderate faction felt that what they had done in Surat in 1907 was wrong. They were also dissatisfied with the Congress's inactivity. Tilak's appeal influenced them. Furthermore, Annie Besant was constantly pressuring them to revive the nationalist political movement in the country. Annie Besant had recently joined the Congress. In 1914, she was 66 years old. Her political career began in England, where she was involved in promoting free thought, socialism, Fabianism, and Theosophy. In 1893, she came to India with the aim of working for the Theosophical Society. She established her headquarters in Adyar, a suburb of Madras, and began propagating Theosophy in 1907.  Soon, she gained considerable support, particularly from educated people in communities that had not yet experienced a cultural renaissance. In 1914, Annie Besant decided to broaden the scope of her activities and planned to launch a movement for self-rule in India, modeled after the Irish Home Rule League. She felt that this required the support of the Congress and the cooperation of the extremist faction. To gain the support of the extremists, she felt it was necessary to bring them into the Congress. Annie Besant tried to persuade the moderate leaders of the Congress to allow Tilak and his extremist associates to join the organization. However, the 1914 Congress session thwarted her efforts. Ferozshah Mehta and his supporters in Bombay, along with the moderate leaders from Bengal, succeeded in excluding the extremists. Thereafter, Tilak and Annie Besant decided to pursue their political movement independently, while simultaneously exerting pressure on the Congress to readmit the extremists.

Valley of Flowers National Park - History, Explorers' Records, Location, Geography and Climate

 

Valley of Flowers National Park is an Indian national park established in 1982. Located in Chamoli, Uttarakhand, it is known for its endemic alpine flower meadows and diverse flora. This highly diverse area is also home to rare and endangered animals, including the Asiatic black bear, snow leopard, musk deer, brown bear, red fox, and blue sheep. Birds found in the park include the Himalayan monal pheasant and other high-altitude birds.

At 3,352 to 3,658 meters above sea level, the serene landscape of Valley of Flowers National Park complements the rugged mountain wilderness of Nanda Devi National Park to the east. Together, they form a unique transition zone between the Zanskar and Great Himalayan mountain ranges. The park covers 87.50 km2 and is approximately 8 km long and 2 km wide. It lies entirely within the Temperate Alpine Zone. Both parks fall within the Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve (223,674 ha), which is further surrounded by a buffer zone (5,148.57 km2). The Nanda Devi National Park Reserve is part of the UNESCO World Network of Biosphere Reserves.

The park is open only during the summer months from June to October and remains covered with heavy snow for the rest of the year.

History

Explorers' Records

Because of its remoteness, this place was not widely known to the outside world. In 1931, Frank S. Smyth, Eric Shipton, and R.L. Holdsworth, all British mountaineers, lost their way while returning from a successful expedition to Mount Kamet and arrived in a valley full of flowers. They were captivated by the beauty of the area and named it "Valley of Flowers." Smyth later wrote a book by the same name.

In 1939, Lady Joan Margaret Legge (21 February 1885 – 4 July 1939), a botanist employed by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, came to the valley to study flowers. While climbing some rocky slopes to collect flowers, she slipped and fell to her death. Her sister later visited the valley and erected a memorial near the site.

Professor Chandra Prakash Kala, a botanist at the Wildlife Institute of India, conducted research studies on the valley's flowers and conservation for a decade, beginning in 1993. He compiled a list of 520 alpine plants native to the national park and wrote two books: "The Valley of Flowers – Myth and Reality" and "Ecology and Conservation of the Valley of Flowers National Park, Garhwal Himalaya."

Location

Reaching the Valley of Flowers requires a trek of approximately 17 km (10.5 mi). The nearest major town is Joshimath in Garhwal, which has good road connections to Haridwar and Dehradun, both about 270 km (168 mi) south of Joshimath. From Delhi, one can take a train to Haridwar and then a bus to Govindghat via Rishikesh. Govindghat is about 24 km before another important destination, Badrinath. Govindghat can also be reached by car from Delhi, which is about 500 km away.

Govindghat is a small place near Joshimath (about an hour's driving distance), where the trek begins. From Govindghat, a 4 km shared taxi and then a trek of less than 11 km (8.6 mi) takes trekkers to Ghangaria, a small settlement about 3 km (about 2 mi) from the valley. To reach Ghangaria, one can hire a porter, mule, or even a helicopter. The trek from Govindghat to Ghangaria is common, extending to the Gurudwara Shri Hemkund Sahib Sikh temple in Hemkund, and trekkers may encounter many Sikh pilgrims along the way. As one approaches Ghangaria, fields of fragrant wildflowers, wild rose bushes, and wild strawberries welcome you along the way. Visitors to the Valley of Flowers must obtain a permit from the Forest Department in Ghangaria. The permit is valid for three days. Only daytime sightseeing and trekking are permitted.

Visitors are not permitted to stay inside the national park, and accommodation can be found in Ghangaria. The best time to visit is between July and early September, just after the onset of the monsoon, when the valley is filled with flowers.

Geography

The Valley of Flowers is located in the Pushpavati River valley, in the upper reaches of the Bhyundar Ganga River near Joshimath in the Garhwal region. The lower reaches of the Bhyundar Ganga River near Gobindghat are known as the Bhyundar Valley. The Valley of Flowers, located in the Pushpavati Valley between 30°41' and 30°48'N and 79°33' and 79°46'E, lies 20 km northwest of Nanda Devi National Park, across the broad valley of the Bhyundar Ganga. It is one of two hanging valleys formed at the beginning of the Bhyundar Valley; the other is the smaller Hemkund Valley, which runs parallel to the Valley of Flowers about 10 km south of the Valley of Flowers. The Valley of Flowers is approximately 15 km long from east to west and averages 6 km wide. A small tributary of the Pushpavati River originates from the Tipra Glacier in the Gauri Mountains to the east and flows through the Valley of Flowers.

The area is located in the Zanskar Range of the Himalayas and the highest point in the national park is Gauri Parbat, which is 6,719 m above sea level.

climate

As an inner Himalayan valley, the Nanda Devi Basin has a unique microclimate. Conditions are generally dry and annual rainfall is low, but heavy monsoon rains occur from late June to early September. During the monsoon, fog and low-lying clouds keep the soil moist, resulting in lusher vegetation than in the drier inner Himalayan valleys. Temperatures remain moderate to cool (maximum 19°C) from mid-April to June. The Valley of Flowers also has a microclimate typical of an enclosed inner Himalayan valley, protected from the full impact of the southwest summer monsoon by the Greater Himalayan Range to its south. Heavy fog and rain are frequent during the monsoon, particularly in late summer. Both the basin and valley are typically snow-covered for six to seven months, from late October to late March. Snow accumulates at a greater depth and lower elevation in the shaded southern portions of the valleys than in the northern portions.

Ecology

Biodiversity

The Valley of Flowers, a high-altitude valley in the Himalayas, has long been recognized by renowned mountaineers, botanists, and literature. It has been internationally recognized for over a century and is mentioned in Hinduism. Local people have been visiting the valley since ancient times. It is believed that Indian yogis also visited the valley for meditation. The Valley of Flowers is home to many different colors of flowers, which have evolved over time.

The Valley of Flowers has gained prominence as a region with diverse alpine flora, representing the Western Himalayan alpine shrub and meadow ecoregion. The rich diversity of species reflects its location within a transition zone between the Zanskar and Great Himalayan ranges to the north and south of the valley, respectively, and between the Eastern Himalayan and Western Himalayan flora. Many plant species are considered endangered. Several have not been recorded outside of Uttarakhand. Two have not been recorded in Nanda Devi National Park. The diversity of threatened medicinal plant species is higher than that recorded in other Indian Himalayan protected areas. The entire Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve falls within the Western Himalaya Endemic Bird Area (EBA). The Valley of Flowers National Park is the second core zone of the Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve. Seven restricted-range bird species are endemic to this part of the EBA.

Great Wall of China history and Ming and Qing eras

 

The Great Wall of China is a series of fortifications in China. They were built across the historical northern borders of ancient Chinese states and Imperial China as protection against various nomadic groups from the Eurasian Steppe. The first walls date to the 7th century BC; these were joined together in the Qin dynasty. Successive dynasties expanded the wall system; the best-known sections were built by the Ming dynasty (1368–1644).

To aid in defense, the Great Wall utilized watchtowers, troop barracks, garrison stations, signaling capabilities through the means of smoke or fire, and its status as a transportation corridor. Other purposes of the Great Wall have included border controls (allowing control of immigration and emigration, and the imposition of duties on goods transported along the Silk Road), and the regulation of trade.

The collective fortifications constituting the Great Wall stretch from Liaodong in the east to Lop Lake in the west, and from the present-day Sino–Russian border in the north to Tao River in the south: an arc that roughly delineates the edge of the Mongolian steppe, spanning 21,196.18 km (13,170.70 mi) in total. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and was voted one of the New 7 Wonders of the World in 2007. Today, the defensive system of the Great Wall is recognized as one of the most impressive architectural feats in history.

Great Wall of China history

Early walls

The Chinese were already familiar with the techniques of wall-building by the time of the Spring and Autumn period between the 8th and 5th centuries BC. During this time and the subsequent Warring States period, the states of Zheng, Chu, Qin, Wei, Zhao, Qi, Lu, Han, Yan, Zhongshan and Zhou all constructed extensive fortifications to defend their own borders. Built to withstand the attack of small arms such as swords and spears, these walls were made mostly of stone or by stamping earth and gravel between board frames.

The state of Qin emerged victorious in 221 BC; its ruler, now the First Emperor of a unified China, intended to centralize rule and prevent the resurgence of feudal lords; in doing so, he ordered the destruction of the sections of the walls that divided his empire among the former states. To position the empire against the Xiongnu people from the north, however, he ordered the building of new walls to connect the remaining fortifications along the northern frontier. "Build and move on" was a central guiding principle in constructing the wall, implying that the Chinese were not erecting a permanently fixed border.

Transporting the large quantity of materials required for construction was difficult, so builders always tried to use local resources; stone was used in montane areas, while rammed earth was used while building in the plains. There are no surviving historical records indicating the exact length and course of the Qin walls, as most of the ancient walls have eroded away over the centuries, and very few sections remain today. Later, the Han, the Northern dynasties and the Sui all repaired, rebuilt, or expanded sections of the Great Wall at great cost to defend themselves against northern invaders. The Tang and Song dynasties did not undertake any significant effort in the region. Dynasties founded by non-Han ethnic groups also built border walls: the Xianbei-ruled Northern Wei, the Khitan-ruled Liao, Jurchen-led Jin and the Tangut-established Western Xia, who ruled vast territories over Northern China throughout centuries, all constructed defensive walls, albeit being further north—reaching into the environs of present-day Mongolia—than Han-built fortifications.

Ming and Qing eras

The Ming dynasty made substantial contributions to the Great Wall, following their defeat to the Oirats in the Battle of Tumu. This defeat had come in the context of protracted conflict with Mongol tribes; a new strategy for defense was thus realized by constructing walls along the northern border of China. Acknowledging the Mongol control established in the Ordos Desert, the wall followed the desert's southern edge, instead of incorporating the bend of the Yellow River.

Unlike the earlier fortifications, the Ming construction was stronger and more elaborate, due to the use of bricks and stone instead of rammed earth. Up to 25,000 watchtowers are estimated to have been constructed on the wall. As Mongol raids continued periodically over the years, the Ming devoted considerable resources to repair and reinforce the walls; sections near the Ming capital of Beijing were especially strong. Under general Qi Jiguang's supervision, 1,200 watchtowers from Shanhaiguan Pass to Changping were constructed between 1567 and 1570, and sections of the ram-earth wall were faced with bricks.

During the mid–15th century, the Ming also built a so-called "Liaodong Wall". It enclosed the agricultural heartland of the Liaodong province, protecting it against potential incursions by Jurchen-Mongol Oriyanghan from the northwest and the Jianzhou Jurchens from the north. While stones and tiles were sometimes used here, it was otherwise simply an earth dike with moats on both sides.

Towards the end of the Ming, the Great Wall helped defend the empire against the Manchu invasions that began around 1600. Even after the loss of all of Liaodong, the Ming army held the heavily fortified Shanhai Pass, preventing the Manchus from conquering the Chinese heartland. The Manchus were finally able to cross the Great Wall in 1644, after Beijing had already fallen to Li Zicheng's short-lived Shun dynasty. Before this time, the Manchus had crossed the Great Wall multiple times to raid, but this time it was for conquest. The gates at Shanhai Pass were opened on May 25 by the commanding Ming general, Wu Sangui, who formed an alliance with the Manchus, hoping to use the Manchus to expel the rebels from Beijing. The Manchus quickly seized Beijing instead, and eventually defeated both the Shun dynasty and the remaining Ming resistance, consolidating the rule of the Qing dynasty over all of China proper.

Under Qing rule and the annexation of Mongolia into the empire, China's borders extended beyond the Great Wall; work on it for the purpose of border defense was thus discontinued. Construction nevertheless persisted with projects like the Willow Palisade; following a line similar to that of the Liaodong Wall of the Ming, it was meant to prevent Han Chinese migration into Manchuria.

None of the Europeans who visited China or Mongolia in the 13th and 14th centuries, such as Giovanni da Pian del Carpine, William of Rubruck, Marco Polo, Odoric of Pordenone and Giovanni de' Marignolli, mentioned the Great Wall.

The North African traveler Ibn Battuta, who also visited China during the Yuan dynasty c. 1346, had heard about China's Great Wall, possibly before he had arrived in China. He wrote that the wall is "sixty days' travel" from Zeitun (modern Quanzhou) in his travelogue Gift to Those Who Contemplate the Wonders of Cities and the Marvels of Travelling. He associated it with the legend of the wall mentioned in the Qur'an, which Dhul-Qarnayn (commonly associated with Alexander the Great) was said to have erected to protect people near the land of the rising sun from the savages of Gog and Magog. However, Ibn Battuta could find no one who had either seen it or knew of anyone who had seen it, suggesting that although there were remnants of the wall at that time, they were not significant.

Soon after Europeans reached Ming China by ship in the early 16th century, accounts of the Great Wall started to circulate in Europe, even though no European was to see it for another century. Possibly one of the earliest European descriptions of the wall and of its significance for the defense of the country against the "Tartars" (i.e. Mongols) may be the one contained in Joao de Barros's 1563 Asia. Other early accounts in Western sources include those of Gaspar da Cruz, Bento de Goes, Matteo Ricci, and Bishop Juan González de Mendoza, the latter in 1585 describing it as a "superbious and mightie work" of architecture, though he had not seen it. In 1559, in his work "A Treatise of China and the Adjoyning Regions", Gaspar da Cruz offers an early discussion of the Great Wall. Perhaps the first recorded instance of a European actually entering China via the Great Wall came in 1605, when the Portuguese Jesuit brother Bento de Gois reached the northwestern Jiayu Pass from India. Early European accounts were mostly modest and empirical, closely mirroring contemporary Chinese understanding of the Wall, although later they slid into hyperbole, including the erroneous but ubiquitous claim that the Ming walls were the same ones that were built by the first emperor in the 3rd century BC.

When China opened its borders to foreign merchants and visitors after its defeat in the First and Second Opium Wars, the Great Wall became a main attraction for tourists. The travelogues of the later 19th century further enhanced the reputation and the mythology of the Great Wall.

Culture of India - Religious culture and Family Structure and Marriage

 

Indian culture is the legacy of social norms and technologies that originated in or are associated with the ethno-linguistically diverse nation of India. It was the Indian subcontinent until 1947 and, after 1947, the Republic of India. The term also applies to countries and cultures outside India whose history is strongly connected to India through immigration, colonization, or influence, particularly in South Asia and Southeast Asia. India's languages, religions, dance, music, architecture, cuisine, and customs vary across the country.

Indian culture, often described as a fusion of Indian Hindu, Indian Muslim, Indian Sikh, and many other cultures, has been influenced by a history spanning thousands of years, beginning with the Indus Valley Civilization and other early cultural regions. India has one of the oldest continuous cultural traditions in the world.

Many aspects of Indian culture, such as Indian religion, math, philosophy, food, languages, dance, music, and films, have had a profound impact on the Indosphere, Greater India, and the world. The British Raj further impacted Indian culture, such as the widespread introduction of the English language, which led to the creation of a local English dialect and its influence on Indian languages.

Religious culture

Indian religions like Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism are all based on the concepts of dharma and karma. Ahimsa, the philosophy of non-violence, is an essential aspect of indigenous Indian religions, whose most well-known proponent was Mahatma Gandhi, who used civil disobedience to unite India during the Indian independence movement – ​​a philosophy that further inspired Martin Luther King Jr. and James Bevel during the American Civil Rights Movement. Religions of foreign origin, including Abrahamic religions such as Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, are also present in India, as are Zoroastrianism and the Baha'i Faith.

India comprises 28 states and 8 union territories with diverse cultures and is the world's most populous country. Indian culture, often described as a melting pot of diverse cultures, spans the entire Indian subcontinent and has been influenced and shaped by a history spanning thousands of years. Throughout India's history, Indian culture has been significantly influenced by various religious traditions. Ancient India and early Hinduism were influenced by East/Southeast Asian cultures, particularly through Austroasiatic groups such as the early Munda and Mon Khmer, but also by Tibetan and other Tibeto-Burman groups, which significantly impacted local Indian peoples and culture. Many scholars, such as Professor Przelewski, Jules Bloch, and Lévi, and others, have concluded that early India suffered a significant cultural, linguistic, and political Mon-Khmer (Austroasiatic) influence, as evidenced by Austroasiatic loanwords in Indo-Aryan languages ​​and the cultivation of rice, which was introduced by East/Southeast Asian rice-agriculturalists using a route from Southeast Asia through Northeast India into the Indian subcontinent. They are credited with shaping Indian philosophy, literature, architecture, art, and music. Greater India was the historical scope of Indian culture beyond the Indian subcontinent. This is particularly associated with the spread of Hinduism, Buddhism, architecture, administration, and writing systems from India to other parts of Asia via the Silk Road by travelers and maritime traders in the early centuries of the Common Era. To the west, Greater India overlaps with Greater Persia in the Hindu Kush and Pamir mountains. Over the centuries, India has witnessed a great fusion of cultures, including Buddhists, Hindus, Muslims, Jains, Sikhs, and various tribal populations.

India is the birthplace of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, and other religions. These are collectively known as Indian religions. Indian religions, along with the Abrahamic religions, constitute a major part of the world's religions. Today, Hinduism and Buddhism are the third and fourth largest religions in the world, with a combined following of over 2 billion, and possibly as many as 2.5 or 2.6 billion. Followers of Indian religions—Hindus, Sikhs, Jains, and Buddhists—make up approximately 80–82% of India's population.

India is one of the most religiously and ethnically diverse countries in the world, with some societies and cultures being the most religious. Religion plays a significant and important role in the lives of many people here. Although India is a secular Hindu-majority country, it also has a significant Muslim population. Hindus constitute a majority of the population in all 28 states and eight union territories, with the exception of Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Mizoram, and Lakshadweep. Muslims are present throughout India, with significant populations in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra, Kerala, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, and Assam; while only Jammu and Kashmir and Lakshadweep have a majority Muslim population. Christians are India's second-largest minority.

The diversity of religious groups in India has led to a history of turmoil and violence among them. India has been a hotbed of violent religious conflicts between people of different faiths, including Hindus, Christians, Muslims, and Sikhs. Many groups have formed separate national-religious political parties, and despite government policies, minority religious groups continue to face discrimination from more powerful groups seeking to maintain and control resources in specific areas of India.

According to the 2011 census, 79.8% of India's population practices Hinduism. Islam (14.2%), Christianity (2.3%), Sikhism (1.7%), Buddhism (0.7%), and Jainism (0.4%) are the other major religions in India. Many tribal religions, such as Sarnaism, are found in India, although these have been influenced by major religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, and Christianity. Jainism, Zoroastrianism, Judaism, and the Bahá'í Faith are also influential, but in smaller numbers. Atheism and agnosticism also have a marked influence in India, as well as a tolerance of other religions.

Atheism and agnosticism have a long history in India and flourished in the Shramana movement. The Charvaka sect began in India around the 6th century BCE. It is one of the earliest forms of materialist and atheistic movement in ancient India. Shramanas, Buddhism, Jainism, Ajivikas, and some sects of Hinduism uphold atheism and reject the idea of ​​a creator god, rituals, and superstition. India has produced some well-known atheist politicians and social reformers. According to the 2012 WIN-Gallup Global Index of Religion and Atheism report, 81% of Indians were religious, 13% were not religious, 3% were confirmed atheists, and 3% were undecided or did not respond.

Family Structure and Marriage

For generations, the joint family system has been prevalent in India. This occurs when the elder members of the family—parents, children, their spouses, and their children—live together. Typically, the head of the joint Indian family system is the eldest male member. He makes most of the important decisions and rules, and other family members are required to follow them. Nowadays, due to the economy, lifestyle, and high cost of living in most metro cities, people are abandoning the joint family model and adopting the nuclear family model. Previously, the purpose of living in a joint family was to foster love and concern for family members. However, now, spending time with each other is a challenge as more and more of them live abroad to support their needs. The rise of the nuclear family trend has altered the traditional family headship structure, and older men are no longer essential heads of the family, as they often live alone in old age and become more vulnerable than ever.

In a 1966 study, Orenstein and Micklin analyzed India's population data and family structure. Their study showed that Indian households remained relatively consistent in size between 1911 and 1951. Subsequently, with urbanization and economic development, India saw the breakdown of traditional joint families into more nuclear-like families. In his book, Sinha, after summarizing numerous sociological studies on the Indian family, notes that over the past 60 years, the cultural trend in most parts of India has been a rapid shift from joint families to nuclear families, similar to population trends in other parts of the world. In the 1990s, traditionally large joint families constituted a small percentage of Indian households, and average per capita household income was low. He found that joint families persisted in some areas and situations, partly due to cultural traditions and partly due to practical reasons. Due to differing ideologies of rural and urban parenting, young people from lower socioeconomic classes tend to spend more time with their families than their peers. With the spread of education and the growth of the economy, the traditional joint-family system is rapidly breaking down across India, and attitudes toward working women have changed.

Colosseum - Exterior of the Colosseum and Interior of the Colosseum

 

The chosen site was a flat area at the bottom of a low valley between the Caelian, Esquiline, and Palatine hills, through which flowed a canal-like stream and an artificial lake/swamp. The area was densely populated until the second century BC. It was devastated by the Great Fire of Rome in 64 AD, after which Nero seized much of the area to add to his personal domain. He built the magnificent Domus Aurea on the site, in front of which he created an artificial lake surrounded by pavilions, gardens, and verandas. The existing Aqua Claudia aqueduct was extended to supply water to the area, and Nero's massive bronze Colossus was erected nearby at the entrance to the Domus Aurea.

Although the Colossus was saved, much of the Domus Aurea was demolished. The lake was filled in, and the land was reused for the new Flavian Amphitheater. The gladiatorial school and other support buildings were built near the former arena of the Domus Aurea. Vespasian's decision to build the Colosseum on the site of Nero's lake can be seen as a populist move to return to the people the area of ​​the city that Nero had taken for his own use. Unlike many other amphitheaters built on the outskirts of the city, the Colosseum was built in the city center, effectively placing it in the heart of Rome, both symbolically and geographically.

Following the First Jewish-Roman War in 70 AD, when Jerusalem was under siege, its construction was funded by the magnificent materials looted from the Jewish Temple. According to a reconstructed inscription found at the site, "The Emperor Vespasian ordered this new amphitheater to be built from his general's share of the spoils." It is often believed, as with many other Roman projects of the time, that slaves and prisoners of war were brought back to Rome and provided the vast majority of the labor needed to build the amphitheater. Alongside this free labor, teams of professional Roman builders, engineers, artists, painters, and decorators performed the more specialized work required to construct the Colosseum. The Colosseum was constructed from a variety of materials: wood, limestone, tuff, tiles, cement, and mortar.

Construction of the Colosseum began during the reign of Vespasian, around 70-72 AD (some sources state 73-75 AD). By the time of Vespasian's death in 79, the Colosseum had been completed up to the third floor. His son, Titus, completed the top level in 80, and the first games were held in 80 or 81 AD. Dio Cassius states that over 9,000 wild animals were killed during the first games in the amphitheater. Commemorative coins were issued to mark the inauguration. The building was further renovated under Vespasian's younger son, the newly crowned emperor Domitian, who built the Hypogeum, a series of tunnels used to house animals and slaves. He also constructed a gallery above the Colosseum to increase its seating capacity.

In 217, the Colosseum was severely damaged by a major fire (according to Dio Cassius, started by lightning) that destroyed the wooden upper level of the amphitheater. It was not fully repaired until around 240, and further repairs were made in 250 or 252, and again in 320. Honorius banned the practice of gladiator fights in 399 and again in 404. The last mention of gladiator fights is from around 435. An inscription records repairs to various parts of the Colosseum under Theodosius II and Valentinian III (reigned 425–455), perhaps to repair damage caused by a major earthquake in 443; further work occurred in 484 and 508. The arena continued to be used for fights until the 6th century. The hunting of animals continued at least until 523, when Anicius Maximus celebrated his consulship with some Veneticians, who had been reviled by King Theodoric the Great for their high prices.

Exterior of the Colosseum

Unlike Roman theaters built on hills, the Colosseum is a completely different structure. Its basic exterior and interior architecture is derived from two theaters built back to back. It is elliptical in plan and measures 189 m (615 ft / 640 Roman ft) long and 156 m (510 ft / 528 Roman ft) wide, with a base area of ​​24,000 square meters (6 acres). The outer wall is 48 m (157 ft / 165 Roman ft) high. Its perimeter was initially 545 m (1,788 ft / 1,835 Roman ft). The central arena is an ellipse, 87 m (287 ft) long and 55 m (180 ft) wide, surrounded by a 5 m (15 ft) high wall, topped by seating.

It is estimated that the outer wall required over 100,000 cubic meters (3.5 million cubic feet) of travertine stone, which was laid without mortar; held together by 300 tons of iron clamps. However, it has suffered significant damage over the centuries, with large sections collapsing after earthquakes. The northern section of the surrounding wall still stands; the distinctive triangular brickwork at both ends is modern, added in the early 19th century to strengthen the wall. The exterior of the Colosseum that remains today is actually the original inner wall.

The surviving large portion of the outer wall comprises three upper and lower stories, topped by a podium, topped by a high attic, both with windows at regular intervals. The arcades are composed of half-columns of the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, while the attic is adorned with Corinthian pilasters. Each arch of the second and third-story arcades features statues, likely honoring gods and other characters from Classical mythology.

Two hundred and forty mast-like corbels stood above the attic. They initially supported a retractable canopy, called the velarium, which protected spectators from sun and rain. This was a canvas-covered, net-like structure made of ropes, with a hole in the center. It covered two-thirds of the arena and sloped downward toward the center to catch the breeze and provide ventilation to the spectators. The velarium was staffed by sailors specially recruited from the Roman Navy headquarters at Misenum, housed in the nearby Castra Misenacium.

The Colosseum's massive crowds necessitated rapid filling and emptying. Its architects addressed this problem by employing methods similar to those used in modern stadiums. There were 80 entrances at ground level around the amphitheater, 76 of which were used by the general public. Each entrance and exit was numbered, as were each staircase. The northern main entrance was reserved for the Roman emperor and his entourage, while the other three axial entrances were likely used by the wealthy. All four axial entrances were richly decorated with painted stucco reliefs, fragments of which remain. Many of the original outer entrances have disappeared with the collapse of the wall, but Entrances XXIII (23) to LIIII (54) remain.

Spectators were issued tickets in the form of numbered pottery fragments, which directed them to the correct section and line. They reached their seats through vomitoria (singular vomitorium), openings in a row of seats from below or behind. These allowed people to reach their seats quickly and, after the event was over or in case of emergency, could be evacuated within minutes. The name vomitoria comes from the Latin word meaning rapid discharge, from which the English word vomit is derived.

Interior of the Colosseum

According to the Codex-Calendar of 354, the Colosseum could seat 87,000 people, though modern estimates place the number at around 50,000. They were seated in a tiered arrangement that reflected the strictly segregated nature of Roman society. The emperor and the Vestal Virgins were given special boxes at the north and south ends, respectively, which offered the best views of the arena. On either side, at the same level, was a wide platform or podium for the senatorial class, who were allowed to bring their own chairs. The names of some senators from the 5th century can still be seen engraved in the stonework; perhaps seats were reserved for them.

The tier above the senators, called the Maenianum Primum, housed non-senatorial nobles or knights (equites). The next level, the Maenianum Secundum, was initially for ordinary Roman citizens (plebeians) and was divided into two sections. The lower section (immum) was for wealthy citizens, while the upper section (summum) was for poorer citizens. Special areas were created for other social groups: boys with their tutors, soldiers on leave, foreign dignitaries, writers, heralds, priests, etc. Stone (and later marble) seating was provided for citizens and nobles, who may have brought their own cushions. Inscriptions identify areas reserved for specific groups.

During the reign of Domitian, another level, the Maenianum Secundum in Legnis, was added to the top of the building. It contained a gallery for the common poor, slaves, and women. There was either standing room only, or the wooden benches were extremely high. Certain groups were banned from the Colosseum altogether, notably gravediggers, actors, and former gladiators.

Each tier was divided into sections (maeniana) by winding passages and low walls (precincts or baltei), and into cunei, or wedges, by stairs and corridors leading from the vomitoria. Each row of seats (gradus) was numbered, so that each seat could be identified precisely by its gradus, cuneus, and number.

History of the Taj Mahal - Architecture and design

 

The Taj Mahal is an ivory-white marble mausoleum on the right bank of the Yamuna River in Agra, Uttar Pradesh, India. It was commissioned in 1631 by the fifth Mughal emperor, Shah Jahan (1628–1658), to house his beloved wife, Mumtaz Mahal; it also houses Shah Jahan's tomb. The mausoleum is the centerpiece of a 17-hectare (42-acre) complex, which includes a mosque and a guest house, and is set within formal gardens surrounded by a parapet wall on three sides.

Construction of the mausoleum was completed in 1648, but work on the second phase of the project continued for another five years. The first ceremony at the mausoleum was performed by Shah Jahan on 6 February 1643, the 12th anniversary of Mumtaz Mahal's death. The Taj Mahal complex is believed to have been completed in 1653, with a cost estimated at the time to be approximately ₹32 million, which would be approximately ₹52.8 billion (US$827 million) in 2015.

The building complex incorporates design traditions from Indo-Islamic and Mughal architecture. It utilizes symmetrical construction, using distinct shapes and symbols. While the mausoleum is made of white marble inlaid with semi-precious stones, the other buildings in the complex were made of red sandstone, reminiscent of Mughal-era buildings of the time. The construction project involved over 20,000 laborers and craftsmen under the guidance of a board of architects led by the emperor's court architect, Ustad Ahmad Lahauri.

The Taj Mahal was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1983 for being "a jewel of Islamic art in India and one of the most cherished masterpieces of world heritage." It is considered one of the finest examples of Mughal architecture and a symbol of Indian history. The Taj Mahal is a major tourist attraction, attracting over five million visitors each year. In 2007, it was declared a winner of the New 7 Wonders of the World initiative. The Taj Mahal and its setting, surrounding land, and structures are a Monument of National Importance, managed by the Archaeological Survey of India.

Architecture and Design

The Taj Mahal incorporates and extends the design traditions of Indo-Islamic and Mughal architecture. Inspiration for the building came from Timurid and Mughal buildings, including the Gur-e-Amir (the tomb of Timur, the ancestor of the Mughal dynasty) in Samarkand and Humayun's Tomb in Delhi, which inspired the Charbagh Gardens and the site's Hasht-Behesht plan. The building complex employs symmetrical construction using distinct shapes and symbols. While the tomb is made of white marble inlaid with semi-precious stones, the other buildings in the complex were made of red sandstone, typical of Mughal-era buildings of the time. The entire complex is built on a platform 300 meters (980 ft) long and 8.7 meters (28.5 ft) high, along the banks of the Yamuna River. The platform is composed of varying patterns of dark and light sandstone.

Exterior of the Taj Mahal

The mausoleum building is the central structure of the entire complex. It is a white marble structure standing on a 6-meter (20 ft) high square platform with sides measuring 95.5 meters (313 ft). The base structure is a large multi-chamber cube with chamfered corners, forming an eight-sided structure approximately 57.3 meters (188 ft) long on each of the four long sides.

The building has four identical sides with iwans (arch-shaped doorways) topped by a large dome and finial. Each side of the iwan features a 33-meter (108 ft) high pishtaq (domed archway), flanked by two similarly shaped arched balconies. This archway motif is repeated on a smaller scale on the chamfered corner areas, giving the design a perfectly symmetrical appearance. On the southern side of the platform, facing the garden, there are two staircases on either side that are slightly covered and provide the only access from ground level to the tomb building.

The mausoleum's most striking feature is the 23-meter (75 ft) high marble dome that crowns it. The onion-shaped dome rests on a 12-meter (39 ft) high cylindrical drum with an inside diameter of 18.4 meters (60 ft). The dome is slightly tapered and topped by a 9.6-meter (31 ft) high gilded finial. The space between the drum and the dome is decorated with decorative moldings featuring twisted rope designs.

Four smaller domes, or chhatris, are located around the main dome's corners, mimicking the main dome's onion shape. The smaller domes are supported by pillars that stand atop the main structure and help bring light into the building. High pinnacles, called guldas, project from the sides of the walls, serving as decoration. The main and smaller domes are decorated with lotus-like designs. The domes are topped by decorative finials that incorporate Persian and Indian design elements. The main finial was originally made of gold, but was replaced in the early 19th century with a gilded bronze replica. The finial is topped by a crescent moon, a distinctive Islamic design, with its horns pointing skyward.

The tomb building is flanked by four minarets, one at each corner of the platform, facing the chamfered corners. Each minaret, each over 40 meters (130 ft) tall, is positioned in a similar fashion at the corners, facing the chamfered corners of the main building. Each minaret is composed of three nearly equal sections, with balconies at the intersections. The towers are topped by small chhatris (umbrellas) featuring similar design elements to the main dome, including a finial. Stairs lead to the top of the minarets, which have rectangular openings beneath the domes, providing light and ventilation. The minarets were designed to resemble traditional mosque elements, used by the muezzin to call for prayer. The minarets were built slightly outward from the platform so that, if they fell, their contents would fall away from the tomb.

The building's exterior surfaces are decorated with a variety of delicate relief art, incorporating various precious and ancient stones. Decorative elements were created using paint, plaster, stone inlay, or carving. In keeping with Islamic prohibitions against human-like figures, decorative elements can be categorized as calligraphy, abstract shapes, or plant-like designs. The white marble dados feature decorative bas-relief depictions of nature and plant elements. The marble is polished to emphasize the exquisite detail of the carvings, and the frames and archway spandrels are decorated with pietra dura inlays featuring stylized geometric patterns of vines, flowers, and fruit.

Interior of the Taj Mahal

The main inner chamber is an octagonal room with 7.3-meter (24 ft) sides, designed to allow entry from all sides, with the main door facing the garden on the south side. Two layers of eight Pishtaq arches run along the walls, similar to those on the outside. The four upper middle arches form balconies or viewing areas, and each balcony has an external window with a fine latticework. The inner wall is open along the axes with lattice screens that allow light from the outside into the main chamber. Except for the south side, the other three sides are a long, open room flanked by two square chambers on either side, each covered by decorated roofs on a platform. The central chamber has arched openings on three sides with glass panes in the lattices, and a small rectangular window in the central latticework. The square chambers, accessed from separate doors, were likely originally used as resting places for visitors and Quran reciters. Stairs lead from the ground floor to the roof, where corridors between the central hall and two corner rooms to the south contain a system of ventilation shafts.

The inner walls are approximately 25 meters (82 ft) high and are topped by a "false" inner dome with a sun motif. The inlay work is lapidary with precious and semi-precious stones. The walls of each room are richly decorated with dado bas-reliefs, intricate lapidary inlay, and exquisite calligraphy panels, echoing design elements seen throughout the complex's exterior. The main room houses the false sarcophagi of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan, while the real ones are located in the basement. Perforated marble lattices (Mahjar-e-Mushabbak) flank the tombs and are composed of eight marble panels with intricate perforated work and intricately detailed inlays of semi-precious stones. On the second anniversary of Mumtaz Mahal's death in 1633, the tombs were originally covered with a gold curtain, which was later replaced by a marble curtain in 1643.

The upper main room contains the tombs of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan, who were originally buried in the lower tomb room. From the southern main entrance room, a staircase leads to the lower tomb room, which is rectangular, with marble walls and an undecorated ceiling. Mumtaz's tomb is in the center of the room, on a 1.5 by 2.5 meter (4 ft 11 in x 8 ft 2 in) marble base. Shah Jahan's tomb is located on a larger base to the west, in a different style. At the top is a traditional sculpture of a small pen box, indicating it is a male tomb. The tombs are aligned north-south, with heads facing north, and the bodies were laid on their sides, facing west, towards Mecca.

Bhimrao Ambedkar Biography | Early Life and Education

Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar was an Indian social reformer. He was the chairman of the Drafting Committee of the Constituent Assembly of India, which drafted the Indian Constitution based on a draft prepared by Sir B. N. Rau. Later, he renounced Hinduism, embraced Buddhism, and inspired the Dalit Buddhist movement.

After graduating from Elphinstone College, University of Bombay, Ambedkar studied economics at Columbia University and the London School of Economics, and earned doctoral degrees from both institutions in 1923 and 1927 respectively. He was one of the few Indian students to earn a doctorate from these institutions in the 1920s. In his early career, he was an economist, professor, and lawyer. His later life was dedicated to political activities; he participated in partition talks, published newspapers, advocated for the political rights and social emancipation of Dalits, and contributed to the establishment of the Indian state. In 1956, he converted to Buddhism.

Early Life and Education

Ambedkar was born on April 14, 1891, in the town and military cantonment of Mhow (now officially Dr. Ambedkar Nagar, Madhya Pradesh). He was the 14th and youngest child of Ramji Sakpal, an army officer of the rank of Subedar, and Bhimabai Sakpal, daughter of Laxman Murbadkar. His family was a Marathi family from Ambawe (Mandalgad taluka) in the Ratnagiri district of present-day Maharashtra. Ambedkar's ancestors served in the British East India Company's army for several generations, and his father was employed in the British Indian Army at the Mhow cantonment.

Ambedkar was born into the Mahar (Dalit) caste, who were considered untouchable and faced socio-economic discrimination. Although he attended school, Ambedkar and other untouchable children were segregated and received little attention or help from teachers. They were not allowed to sit in class. When they needed water, a person of a higher caste would pour water into their hands from a height, as they were not allowed to touch the water or the vessel. This task was usually performed by the school peon for Ambedkar, and if the peon was absent, he had to go without water; he later described this situation in his writings as "no peon, no water." He had to sit on a sack, which he would then have to carry home.

Ramji Sakpal retired in 1894, and two years later the family moved to Satara. Shortly after this move, Ambedkar's mother passed away. His aunt took care of the children, and they lived in difficult circumstances. Of Ambedkar's three sons—Balram, Anandrao, and Bhimrao—and two daughters—Manjula and Tulsi—only Ambedkar passed his exams and was able to attend high school. His original surname was Sakpal, but his father registered him at school under the name Ambawadekar, which meant that he was from the village of Ambav in the Ratnagiri district. His Marathi Brahmin teacher, Krishnaji Keshav Ambedkar, later changed his surname in the school records from "Ambawadekar" to "Ambedkar."

Education

In 1897, Ambedkar's family moved to Bombay. There, Ambedkar became the only Dalit student to be admitted to Elphinstone High School. In 1906, when he was about 15 years old, he was married to nine-year-old Ramabai, an arranged marriage according to the customs of the time.

In 1907, he passed his matriculation examination, and the following year he enrolled at Elphinstone College, affiliated with the University of Bombay. He claimed to be the first member of his Mahar community to do so. When he passed the fourth-grade English examination, his community celebrated, considering it a "great achievement," though he himself remarked that "it was nothing special compared to the educational level of other communities." To celebrate his success, the community organized a public function, and on that occasion, he was presented with a biography of Buddha, written by Dada Keluskar, a family friend and author.

By 1912, he had earned a degree in Economics and Political Science from the University of Bombay and was preparing to take a job with the Baroda state government. His wife had recently joined him and they had begun their married life, when he had to return to Bombay suddenly to see his ailing father, who died on February 2, 1913.

In 1913, at the age of 22, Ambedkar was awarded a Baroda State Scholarship of £11.50 (sterling) per month for three years under a scheme initiated by Sayajirao Gaekwad III (the Gaekwad of Baroda). The scheme aimed to provide opportunities for postgraduate education at Columbia University in New York City. Immediately upon arriving there, he began living with a Parsi named Naval Bhatena in Livingston Hall, who later became his lifelong friend. He earned his Master's degree in June 1915, majoring in Economics and Sociology, History, Philosophy, and Anthropology. He submitted a thesis titled "Ancient Indian Trade." Ambedkar was influenced by John Dewey and his work on democracy. In 1916, he completed his second master's thesis, "The National Dividend of India—A Historical and Analytical Study," and received his second MA degree. On May 9, he presented a paper titled "Castes in India: Their Mechanism, Genesis and Development" at a seminar conducted by anthropologist Alexander Goldenweiser. Ambedkar earned his PhD in Economics from Columbia University in 1927.

In October 1916, he enrolled in the Bar course at Gray's Inn and also enrolled at the London School of Economics, where he began working on his doctoral thesis. In June 1917, he returned to India as his scholarship from Baroda had ended. The ship carrying his books was destroyed by a German submarine. He was permitted to return to London within four years to submit his thesis. He soon returned and completed his doctoral degree in 1921. His thesis was on "The Rupee Problem: Its Origin and Its Solution." In 1923, he completed his D.Sc. degree in Economics.

Human disease - Concepts, Primary illness, Secondary illness

 

A disease is a specific abnormal condition that adversely affects the structure or function of all or part of an organism and is not immediately caused by external injury. Diseases are often considered medical conditions associated with specific signs and symptoms. Diseases can be caused by external factors such as pathogens or internal problems. For example, internal problems with the immune system can lead to a variety of different illnesses, including immunodeficiency, hypersensitivity, allergies, and various forms of autoimmune disorders.

In humans, the term disease is often used to describe any condition that causes pain, discomfort, distress, social problems, or death to the affected individual, or to those in contact with that individual. In this broad sense, it sometimes includes injuries, disabilities, disorders, syndromes, infections, various symptoms, abnormal behaviors, and unusual changes in structure and function, while in other cases and for other purposes, these may be considered distinct categories. Diseases can affect people not only physically but also mentally, as suffering from and living with a disease can change a person's outlook on life.

Death due to disease is called death from natural causes. There are four main types of disease: infectious diseases, deficiency diseases, hereditary diseases, and physiological diseases. Diseases can also be classified in other ways, such as communicable and non-communicable diseases. The most fatal diseases in humans are ischemic heart disease (blockage of blood flow), followed by stroke and COPD (lung disease). In developed countries, the diseases that cause the most illness are neuropsychiatric conditions, such as depression and anxiety.

Pathology, the study of disease, includes the study of etiology, or causes.

Concept

In many cases, the terms disease, disorder, morbidity, sickness, and illness are used interchangeably; however, there are situations when certain terms are considered preferable.

Disease

The term disease broadly refers to any condition that disrupts the body's normal functioning. Therefore, diseases are associated with a malfunction of the body's normal homeostatic processes. Generally, the term is used specifically for infectious diseases, which are clinically evident illnesses caused by the presence of pathogenic microbial agents such as viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, multicellular organisms, and abnormal proteins called prions. Infections or colonizations that do not cause clinically evident disruptions to normal functioning, such as the presence of normal bacteria and yeast in the intestine, or passenger viruses, are not considered diseases. In contrast, an infection that is asymptomatic during its incubation period, but is expected to develop symptoms later, is generally considered a disease. Non-infectious diseases are all other diseases, including most cancers, heart disease, and genetic diseases.

Acquired Disease

An acquired disease is one that begins at some point in one's life; in contrast, a disease that is present from birth is called a congenital disease. Acquired may sound like it means "contagious," but it simply means acquired sometime after birth. It may also sound like it could mean a secondary disease, but an acquired disease can also be a primary disease.

Acute Illness

An acute illness is one that lasts for a short period of time (acute); this term can sometimes also mean a severe illness.

Chronic Condition or Chronic Disease

A chronic illness is one that persists over time, often for at least six months, but can also include illnesses that are expected to last a lifetime.

Congenital Disorder or Congenital Disease

A congenital disorder is one that is present at birth. It is often a genetic disease or disorder and may be inherited. It may also be the result of an infection transmitted directly from the mother, such as HIV/AIDS.

Genetic Disease

A genetic disorder or disease is caused by one or more genetic mutations. It is often inherited, but some mutations are random and new. Hereditary or Inherited Disease

A hereditary disease is a type of genetic disease caused by genetic mutations that are inherited (and can run in families).

Iatrogenic Disease

An iatrogenic disease or condition is one that results from medical intervention, whether as a side effect of treatment or an unintentional consequence.

Idiopathic Disease

The cause or source of an idiopathic disease is unknown. As medical science has advanced, many diseases with a completely unknown cause have had some aspects of their origin understood and therefore lost their idiopathic status. For example, when germs were discovered, it was discovered that they were caused by infections, but specific germs and diseases were not linked. In another example, it is known that autoimmunity causes some forms of diabetes mellitus type 1, although the specific molecular pathways through which this works are still not understood. It is also common to find that certain factors are associated with certain diseases; however, association does not necessarily imply causation. For example, a third factor may cause both the disease and its associated event.

Terminal Illness

A disease that cannot be cured. Terminal illnesses are not necessarily life-threatening, and sometimes the symptoms can be treated so that the disease has little or no impact on quality of life.

Primary Illness

A primary illness is an illness caused by the underlying cause of the disease, while a secondary illness is a sequela or complication resulting from the primary illness. For example, the common cold is a primary illness, while rhinitis could be a potential secondary illness or sequela. The doctor must determine which primary illness, cold, or bacterial infection is causing the patient's secondary rhinitis in order to prescribe antibiotics.

Secondary Illness

A secondary illness is a sequela or complication of a previous, underlying illness, which is called the primary illness or simply the root cause. For example, a bacterial infection can be primary, in which a healthy person comes into contact with the bacteria and becomes infected, or it can be secondary to a primary cause, which prepares the body for infection. For example, a primary viral infection that weakens the immune system can lead to a secondary bacterial infection. Similarly, a primary burn that creates an open wound can become an entry point for bacteria, leading to a secondary bacterial infection.

Environment of India - Geography, Issues and Climate Change

 

India's environment includes some of the world's most biodiverse ecozones. The Deccan Traps, the Gangetic Plains, and the Himalayas are the main geographic regions. The country faces various forms of pollution as its main environmental issue and, as a developing country, is more vulnerable to the effects of climate change. India has laws to protect the environment and is one of the countries that has signed the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) Treaty. The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change and the Forest Departments of each state plan and implement environmental policies across the country.

India has some of the world's most biodiverse ecozones—deserts, high mountains, highlands, tropical and temperate forests, wetlands, plains, grasslands, riverine areas, and an island archipelago. It has three biodiversity hotspots: the Western Ghats, the Himalayas, and the Indo-Burma region. These hotspots contain numerous endemic species.

In 2021, approximately 713,789 km2 of land in the country was under forest cover, 92% of which was government owned. Only 22.7% of the land was forested, compared to the 33% recommended by the National Forest Policy Resolution (1952). Most of this cover is broadleaf deciduous trees, with one-sixth being sal and one-tenth being teak. Coniferous species are found in the northern highlands and include pine, juniper, and cedar.

India has 350 species of mammals, 375 species of reptiles, 130 species of amphibians, 20,000 species of insects, 19,000 species of fish, and 1,200 species of birds. The Asiatic lion, Bengal tiger, and leopard are the main predators; the country has the largest number of cat species than any other country. Elephants, Indian rhinoceroses, and eight species of deer are also found.

India has over 17,000 species of flowering plants, representing six percent of the world's total plant species. India also contains seven percent of the world's flora. India's diverse climatic conditions have contributed to a rich variety of flora. India has over 45,000 species of flora, many of which are endemic to the region. India is divided into eight main floristic regions: North-Western Himalayas, Eastern Himalayas, Assam, Indus Plain, Gangetic Plain, Deccan, Malabar and Andaman.

Geography

India lies on the Indian Plate, which is the northern part of the Indo-Australian Plate, whose continental crust forms the Indian subcontinent. The country lies north of the equator, between 8°4' and 37°6' north latitude and 68°7' and 97°25' east longitude. It is the seventh-largest country in the world, with a total area of ​​3,287,263 square kilometers (1,269,219 mi). India is 3,214 km (1,997 mi) long from north to south and 2,933 km (1,822 mi) long from east to west. It has a land border of 15,200 km (9,445 mi) and a coastline of 7,517 km (4,671 mi).

Four observations suggest that the Indian Plate and Eurasia collided 40 to 60 million years ago. One of these is that India has no mammal fossil record prior to about 50 million years ago. On its way, the Indian Plate passed over the Reunion hotspot, triggering volcanic activity that formed the Deccan Traps. Its collision with the Eurasian Plate gave rise to the Himalayas, and continued tectonic activity continues to make it an earthquake-prone region. The Gangetic Plain was formed by the Ganges and its tributaries depositing sediment in the area between the Himalayas and the Vindhya Range. The rock formations can be divided into Archean, Proterozoic (Dharwar System), Cuddapah System, Vindhyan System, Gondwana System, the Deccan Traps, Tertiary System, Pleistocene Period, and Recent formations.

Climate encompasses a wide variety of weather conditions across a large geographic scale and varied topography, making it difficult to make generalizations. Given India's size, bordered by the Himalayas, the Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal, and the Indian Ocean, the distribution of temperature and rainfall across the subcontinent varies greatly. Based on the Köppen system, which considers average monthly temperature, average monthly precipitation, and average annual precipitation, India hosts six major climate subtypes, ranging from arid deserts in the west, alpine tundra and glaciers in the north, and humid tropical regions supporting rainforests in the southwest and island regions. Many regions have distinct microclimates. The India Meteorological Department divides the seasons into four parts: winter (mid-December to mid-March), summer (mid-March to May), rainy season (June to September), and the retreating monsoon season (October to mid-December).

Issues

Pollution is one of the major environmental issues in India.

Water pollution is a major concern in the country. The main sources of water pollution are domestic, industrial, agricultural, and shipping wastewater. The largest source of water pollution in India is untreated sewage. Other sources of pollution include agricultural runoff and unregulated small-scale industries. Most rivers, lakes, and surface water are polluted.

Land Pollution: The main causes of soil (or land) pollution are soil erosion, excessive use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, accumulation of solid and liquid waste, forest fires, and waterlogging. This can be reduced by judicious use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides and by treating wastewater before use for irrigation. Due to a growing population and increasing consumption of food grains, more and more rain-fed croplands are being irrigated using ground and surface water. Irrigated land is gradually losing its fertility, turning into saline, alkaline soil.

Air pollution is another concern in the country. A major source of this is matter emitted from the burning of fossil fuels. Particles in the air, such as soot, smoke, and dust, can be harmful depending on the chemical and physical composition of the pollutants. They can affect the climate and reduce the scattering of solar radiation in the atmosphere.

Noise pollution: This can be described as a state of discomfort or stress caused by unwanted high-intensity sound. It increases in proportion to urbanization and industrialization.

Circular Economy and Waste Management

India is on the path to adopting circular economy techniques to address the growing challenges of waste management in a growing country. The country generates approximately 62 million tons of solid waste annually, of which only 75% is collected and 20% is processed. In an effort to address plastic waste, the government banned single-use plastics by 2022 and established EPR frameworks for e-waste and packaging material management. Initiatives like the Swachh Bharat Mission have led to a dramatic increase in waste collection in metropolitan and urban areas, but material segregation remains inadequate, and informal recycling systems remain hampered.

Good examples include Indore's waste segregation and recycling programs, which have made it India's cleanest city. Corporations are adopting circular practices by recycling steel scrap, while rural areas are engaging in community composting. Waste-to-energy plants, although underutilized, offer a potential solution for non-recyclable waste. However, scaling up these models requires better infrastructure, public awareness, and greater investment in technology.

Climate Change

As a developing country, India is more vulnerable to the impacts of climate change because it relies on climate-sensitive sectors such as agriculture and forestry. Low per capita income and a small public budget also reduce financial adjustment capacity. The country is vulnerable to the immediate socio-economic impacts of climate change. A 2002 study found that the country's temperature increased by approximately 0.57°C every 100 years.

Weak infrastructure also means that people are more exposed to climate change and less resilient. For example, as of 2015, only 124 million Indians were connected to sewers and 297 million to septic tanks. The rest rely on pit latrines or open defecation, posing a significant risk of waterborne diseases during floods – which will become more frequent and severe with climate change. These risks are more acute in urban areas, where high populations mean basic infrastructure options may not be adequate. Furthermore, many of India's largest cities are located in floodplains and deltas, making them highly vulnerable to climate hazards such as sea-level rise, storm surges, and cyclones.

Although India still has a low average per capita income, the country is now the third-largest emitter of greenhouse gas emissions, after China and the USA. The central government has pledged to reduce the emissions intensity of gross domestic product by 20-25% by 2020 compared to 2005 levels. India has also made significant commitments to expand its renewable energy supply, improve energy efficiency, build mass transit, and take other measures to reduce its emissions. There is evidence that many of these climate actions could yield significant benefits beyond reducing India's carbon footprint. Many low-carbon measures are economically attractive, including more efficient air conditioners, parking demand management, gasification, and vehicle performance standards. Others also offer social benefits: for example, if countries promoted renewable energy technologies over fossil fuels and walking/cycling/public transport over private vehicles, air quality in Indian cities could improve significantly.