Partition of India - An important event in the history of india | Partition of Bengal

The Partition of India in 1947 divided British India into two independent states: the Union of India and the Dominion of Pakistan. The Union of India is today the Republic of India, and the Dominion of Pakistan is the Islamic Republic of Pakistan and the People's Republic of Bangladesh. Bengal and Punjab were divided into two provinces based on the district's non-Muslim (mostly Hindu and Sikh) or Muslim population. The British Indian Army, Royal Indian Navy, Indian Civil Service, railways, and central treasury were also divided between the two new states. This partition was finalized in the Indian Independence Act 1947, ending British rule, or Crown rule, in India. India and Pakistan became two self-governing countries, legally established at midnight on August 14–15, 1947.

With the partition of British India and the withdrawal of British forces from the Indian subcontinent, the Indian Independence Act stipulated that the princely states would be freed from their Subsidiary Alliance and other obligations to the British, while the British abandoned their obligations to the states, allowing the rulers to decide whether to join India or Pakistan or remain independent outside of either. Sardar Patel stated in a speech in January 1948, "With the end of paramountcy, every Indian state became a separate independent entity." Political integration of the princely states into the two new dominions began with several mergers in August 1947, but most occurred later. In particular, the rulers of Hyderabad, Jammu and Kashmir, and other states chose independence.

Partition displaced 12 to 20 million people along religious lines, creating a major refugee crisis involving large-scale migration and population transfer within the newly formed dominions. Widespread violence occurred, making it difficult to estimate the loss of life and property before, during, or after Partition. As of 2009, estimates still ranged between two hundred thousand and two million. The violent manner of Partition created an atmosphere of hostility and suspicion between India and Pakistan, which continues to impact India-Pakistan relations today.

The term "Partition of India" does not include the earlier separation of Burma (now Myanmar) and Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) from British India. It does not include the inclusion of areas of French India into India during the period 1947–1954, or the inclusion of Goa and other districts of Portuguese India into India in 1961. Other political entities in the region that existed in 1947, such as Sikkim, Bhutan, Nepal, and the Maldives, remained unaffected by Partition. 

Background

Pre-World War II (1905–1938)

Partition of Bengal: 1905

In 1905, during his second term as Viceroy of India, Lord Curzon divided the Bengal Presidency—the largest administrative subdivision in British India—into the Muslim-majority East Bengal and Assam Provinces and the Hindu-majority Bengal Province (present-day Indian states of West Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand, and Odisha). Curzon's action, the partition of Bengal—which had been considered by various colonial administrations since the time of Lord William Bentinck, though never implemented—changed nationalist politics more than ever before.

Bengal's Hindu elite, many of whom owned land leased to Muslim peasants in East Bengal, strongly opposed this. The large Bengali-Hindu middle class, concerned that Bengalis might outnumber Biharis and Oriyas in the new Bengal Province, saw Curzon's action as a punishment for their political power. The widespread protests against Curzon's decision primarily took the form of a Swadeshi campaign, which included a boycott of British goods. Occasionally, but openly, protesters also resorted to political violence, including attacks on civilians. This violence was ineffective, as most planned attacks were either prevented by the British or failed. The slogan underlying both types of protests was Bande Mataram, the title of a song by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, which refers to a mother goddess who variously represents Bengal, India, and the Hindu goddess Kali. As English-educated students from Calcutta returned to their villages and towns, unrest spread from Calcutta to surrounding areas of Bengal. The religious fervor of the slogan and political anger over Partition converged when young people in groups like Jugantar began bombing public buildings, looting with weapons, and assassinating British officials. Because Calcutta was the imperial capital, both the anger and the slogan soon became famous throughout the country.

The partition of Bengal was strongly opposed by the Hindu majority, and fearing reforms in favor of the Hindu majority, India's Muslim elite demanded separate voting areas for Muslims from the new Viceroy, Lord Minto, in 1906. They also demanded representation proportional to their population, reflecting both their status as former rulers and their record of cooperation with the British. This resulted in the founding of the All-India Muslim League in Dhaka in December 1906. Although Curzon had by then resigned and returned to England after a quarrel with his military chief, Lord Kitchener, the League supported his partition plan. The Muslim elite's opinion, reflected in the League's, had gradually solidified over the previous three decades, beginning with the 1871 census of British India, which for the first time estimated the population in Muslim-majority areas. On Curzon's part, the desire to appease the Muslims of East Bengal stemmed from British concerns following the 1871 census and the history of Muslims fighting against them in the 1857 Revolt and the Second Anglo-Afghan War.

In the three decades following the 1871 census, Muslim leaders across North India faced intermittent public hostility from some new Hindu political and social groups. For example, the Arya Samaj not only supported the cow protection movement in its campaign but also organized "reconversion" programs to convert Muslims back to Hinduism, upset by the number of Muslims in the census. In the United Provinces, Muslims became further agitated by the increased Hindu political representation in the late 19th century and the political consolidation of Hindus sparked by the Hindi-Urdu controversy and the anti-cow slaughter riots of 1893. In 1905, Muslim fears grew when Tilak and Lajpat Rai attempted to gain leadership positions in the Congress, and the Congress itself coalesced around the symbol of Kali. For example, many Muslims knew that the slogan "Vande Mataram" first appeared in the novel "Anandamath," in which Hindus fought their Muslim oppressors. Finally, Muslim elites, including Nawab Khwaja Salimullah of Dhaka, who hosted the League's first meeting at his mansion in Shahbag, knew that a new province with a Muslim majority would directly benefit Muslims seeking political power.

World War I, Lucknow Pact: 1914–1918

World War I marked a major turning point in the imperial relationship between Britain and India. 1.4 million Indian and British soldiers served in the British Indian Army, and their participation had a profound cultural impact: news of Indian soldiers fighting and dying alongside British troops, as well as news from countries like Canada and Australia, traveled far and wide across the world through the new medium of newsprint and radio. This raised India's international profile, and it continued to rise throughout the 1920s. This led to, among other things, India becoming a founding member of the League of Nations in 1920 under its own name and participating in the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp under the name "Les Indes Anglaises" (British India). Back in India, this led to calls for greater self-government for Indians, particularly among leaders of the Indian National Congress.

The 1916 Lucknow session of the Congress was also the occasion of a sudden reconciliation between the Congress and the Muslim League, sparked by the wartime alliance between Germany and Turkey. Because the Ottoman Sultan retained control of Islamic holy sites like Mecca, Medina, and Jerusalem, and because the British and their allies were now at odds with the Ottoman Empire, some Indian Muslims began to doubt British "religious neutrality," a doubt already evident after the reunification of Bengal in 1911, a decision seen as detrimental to Muslims. In the Lucknow Pact, the League supported the Congress proposal for greater self-government, put forward by Tilak and his supporters; in return, Congress accepted separate electorates for Muslims in the provincial legislatures as well as the Imperial Legislative Council. In 1916, the Muslim League had 500 to 800 members and in subsequent years, it lost much influence among Indian Muslims. Within the League, the pact was not fully accepted, as it was negotiated by a group of "Young Party" Muslims from the United Provinces (UP), notably the brothers Mohammad and Shaukat Ali, who supported a pan-Islamic cause. It received support from Muhammad Ali Jinnah, a young lawyer from Bombay who later played a leadership role in the League and the Indian independence movement. In later years, when the full implications of the pact became clear, it was seen as more beneficial to the Muslim minority elite in provinces like UP and Bihar than to the Muslim majority in Punjab and Bengal. At the time, the "Lucknow Pact" was a significant milestone in the nationalist movement, and the British also recognized it as such.

Jyotirao Phule - A great social reformer, Early Life, social activism and Establishment of Satyashodhak Samaj.

Jyotirao Phule (11 April 1827 – 28 November 1890), also known as Jyotiba Phule, was an Indian social activist, businessman, anti-caste social reformer, and writer from Maharashtra.

His work spanned many areas, including the abolition of untouchability and the caste system, and his efforts to educate women and the oppressed. He and his wife, Savitribai Phule, were pioneers of women's education in India. Phule started his first school for girls in 1848 at Tatyasaheb Bhide's home, or Bhidewada, in Pune. Together with his followers, he founded the Satyashodhak Samaj (Society of Truth Seekers) to advance equal rights for the lower castes. People of all religions and castes could join this association, which worked for the welfare of the oppressed.

Phule is considered a key figure in the social reform movement in Maharashtra. The word Mahatma was first used in 1888 at a special function organised in his honour in Mumbai.

 

Early Life of Jyotirao Phule

Jyotirao Phule, also known as Jyotiba Phule, was born in 1827 into a Hindu gardener family in Satara district. Gardeners traditionally cultivated fruits and vegetables. Among the four varnas of the caste system, they were considered Shudras. Phule was named after the Hindu deity Jyotiba. He was born on the day of Jyotiba's annual fair. Phule's family name was originally Gorhe, and it originated in Katgun village, near Satara city. Phule's great-grandfather, who worked there as a chaugula, or minor village official, moved to Khanwadi in Pune district. There, his only son, Shetiba, plunged the family into poverty. The family, which included three sons, moved to Pune in search of employment. The boys were taken in by a florist, who taught them the secrets of the trade. Their skill in growing and arranging flowers became renowned, and they adopted the name Phule (flower-man) instead of Gorhe. He was so impressed by Peshwa Bajirao II's commission to make flower cushions and other items for royal court ceremonies that he granted him 35 acres of land tax-free under the inam system. The eldest brother plotted to gain sole control of the property, allowing the younger two siblings, Jyotirao Phule's father, Govindrao, to continue farming and selling flowers.

Govindrao married Chimnabai and had two sons, of whom Jyotirao was the youngest. Chimnabai died before he was a year old. At that time, education was not valued highly in the backward Mali community, so after attending primary school, where he learned the basics of reading, writing, and math, Jyotirao was taken out by his father. He joined other family members in both the shop and the fields. However, a man from Phule's own Mali caste recognized his intelligence and convinced his father to allow him to study at the local Scottish Mission High School. Phule completed his English schooling in 1847. As was customary, he was married at the young age of 13 to a girl from the Mali community chosen by his father.

A turning point in his life came in 1848, when he attended the wedding of a Brahmin friend. Phule joined the wedding procession as was customary, but his friend's parents later scolded and insulted him for doing so. They told him that, being from the Shudra caste, he should have stayed away from the ritual. This incident had a profound impact on him and shaped his understanding of the injustices inherent in the caste system.

Jyotirao Phule's social activism

Education

In 1848, at the age of 21, Phule attended a girls' school in Ahmednagar run by Christian missionary Cynthia Farrar. He also read Thomas Paine's "Rights of Man" in 1848, which instilled in him a deep sense of social justice. He realized that oppressed castes and women were marginalized in Indian society, and that education for these communities was essential for their emancipation. To this end, that same year, Phule first taught his wife, Savitribai, to read and write, and later, the couple opened the first indigenous school for girls in Pune. He also taught his sister, Sagunabai Kshirsagar (his aunt's daughter), to write Marathi alongside Savitribai. Pune's traditional upper-caste society disapproved of his work, but many Indians and Europeans wholeheartedly supported him. The conservatives in Pune even forced him to isolate himself from his family and community. During this time, his friend Usman Sheikh and his sister Fatima Sheikh gave him shelter. They also helped him start a school at their home. Later, the Phule couple started schools for children from the then-untouchable castes, such as the Mahar and the Mang. In 1852, three Phule schools were operating, enrolling 273 girls, but by 1858, they all closed. Eleanor Zelliot attributes these closures to the decline in private European donations due to the 1857 rebellion, the withdrawal of government aid, and Jyotirao's resignation from the school management committee due to differences over the curriculum.

Women's welfare

He saw young widows with their heads shaved and no joy in life. Seeing these social evils that fueled discrimination, he decided to educate women. He started with his wife. Every afternoon, Jyotirao would sit with his wife, Savitribai Phule, and teach her while she went to the fields where he worked and brought him food. He sent his wife to receive training at a school. In 1848, the couple opened India's first girls' school in Vishrambagh Wada, Pune.

He supported the remarriage of widows and, in 1863, started a home for pregnant widows from wealthy castes to give birth in a safe place. His orphanage was established in an effort to reduce the rate of child murder.

In 1863, a horrific incident occurred in Pune. A Brahmin widow named Kashibai became pregnant, and her attempts at abortion failed. After giving birth, she killed the child and threw it into a well, but her deed was discovered. She was convicted and imprisoned. This deeply saddened Phule, and so, together with his old friend Sadashiv Ballal Govande and Savitribai, he started an infanticide prevention center. Pamphlets advertising the center were posted throughout Pune, stating: "Widows, come here and give up your child safely and secretly. It is your choice whether you want to keep the child at the center or take it with you. This orphanage will care for the children." The Phule couple ran the infanticide prevention center until the mid-1880s.

Phule tried to eradicate the stigma of social untouchability associated with oppressed castes by opening his home and the use of his water well to members of oppressed castes.

Views on religion and caste

Phule appealed for the restoration of the rule of the great Mahabali, which predated the "treacherous overthrow of the Aryans." He presented his own version of the Aryan Invasion Theory, arguing that the Aryan conquerors of India, whom the theory's proponents considered racially superior, were actually brutal oppressors of the native inhabitants. He believed that they established the caste system as a framework of slavery and social division, ensuring the dominance of their Brahmin successors. He also viewed the subsequent Muslim conquest of the Indian subcontinent as oppressive foreign rule, but was emboldened by the arrival of the British, whom he considered more intelligent and who did not support the varna system introduced and recreated by those previous invaders. In his book, Gulamgiri, he thanked Christian missionaries and British colonialists for making the oppressed castes realize that they deserved all human rights. The book, "Slavery," addressed women, caste, and reform, and was dedicated to those working to abolish slavery in the US.

Phule considered the incarnations of Vishnu to be symbols of oppression caused by the Aryan conquest and revered Mahabali as a hero. His criticism of the caste system began with an attack on the Vedas, the most fundamental Hindu texts. He considered them a form of false consciousness.

He is credited with coining the Marathi term "Dalit" for those outside the traditional caste system.

At an Education Commission hearing in 1882, Phule appealed for help in educating the lower castes. To achieve this, he advocated making primary education compulsory in villages. He also demanded special incentives to attract more lower castes to high schools and colleges.

Establishment of Satyashodhak Samaj

On September 24, 1873, Phule founded the Satyashodhak Samaj to focus on the rights of oppressed groups such as women, Shudras, and Dalits. Through this society, he opposed idol worship and criticized the caste system. The Satyashodhak Samaj campaigned to spread rational thinking and rejected the need for priests.

Phule founded the Satyashodhak Samaj with the ideals of human well-being, happiness, unity, equality, and simple religious principles and customs. A Pune-based newspaper, Dinabandhu, voiced the Samaj's views.

The Samaj's members included Muslims, Brahmins, and government officials. Phule's own Mali caste provided a significant number of members and financial supporters for the organization.

Biography of Savitribai Phule | Savitribai Phule's social work, Early life, Education, career and Personal life.

 

Savitribai Phule (3 January 1831 – 10 March 1897) was an Indian educator, social reformer, and poet, considered the first female teacher of modern India. Along with her husband, Jyotiba Phule, she played a key role in advancing women's rights and education in Maharashtra, leaving a legacy that influenced social reform movements across India. She is also considered a pioneer of India's feminist movement, working to eliminate discrimination and mistreatment based on caste and gender. Savitribai Phule and her husband were pioneers in women's education in India. In 1848, they opened their first school for girls, known as Bhide Wada, at Tatyasaheb Bhide's home in Pune. Later, she co-founded the Satyashodhak Samaj (meaning "Society of Truth Seekers") in 1873 and led its women's wing.

Born and raised in the Mali community, Savitribai was married to Jyotirao Phule at a young age and was initially illiterate. Her education began with homeschooling by her husband and later under the supervision of Sakharam Yashwant Paranjpe and Keshav Shivram Bhawalkar. She received teacher training in Pune and Ahilyanagar and became India's first professionally trained female headmistress and teacher. In 1848, together with Jyotirao and Sagunabai Kshirsagar, she opened the country's first girls' school in Bhidewada, Pune, despite strong opposition from society, offering a progressive syllabus in math, science, and social studies.

Savitribai's career is marked by her persistent efforts to advance the education of girls and marginalized communities. By 1851, she and Jyotirao ran three girls' schools in Pune, each with approximately 150 students. She opened a total of 18 schools, as well as initiatives such as the "Mahila Seva Mandal" to promote women's rights in 1851 and the "Bal Hatya Nivarak Gruha" (a center to prevent the killing of children) for widows in 1853. Savitribai's literary contributions include Kavya Phule (1854) and Bavan Kashi Subodh Ratnakar (1892). She died of bubonic plague in 1897. Today, her legacy as the "Mother of Modern Education in India" lives on, remembered through monuments, the names of institutions, and cultural events.

Early life

Savitribai Phule was born on January 3, 1831, in Naigaon village, Satara district, Maharashtra. She was the youngest of four children of Lakshmi and Khandoji Nevse Patil, both of whom belonged to the Mali community. Savitribai married her husband, Jyotirao Phule, at the age of nine, when he was 13.

Savitribai Phule's education

Savitribai was illiterate at the time of her marriage. She was educated at home by her husband and her mother, Sagunabai Shirsagar, while working in the fields. After completing her primary education from Jyotirao, she continued her studies under the guidance of her friends, Sakharam Yashwant Paranjpe and Keshav Shivram Bhawalkar. In 1846–47, she passed her third and fourth-year exams from an English school, and that same year, she helped Sagunabai open a school for backward communities in Maharwada. She enrolled in two teacher training programs: the first at an institution run by American missionary Cynthia Farrar in Ahmednagar, and the second at a normal school in Pune. Savitribai became India's first trained female teacher and headmistress.

Educational Career of Savitribai Phule

After completing her teacher training, Savitribai Phule began teaching girls in Pune. She did so with Sagunabai Kshirsagar, Jyotirao Phule's sister. Jyotirao Phule was a revolutionary feminist and Jyotirao's mentor. In January 1848, Savitribai and Jyotirao Phule, along with Sagunabai, started their own school in Bhidewada, which became India's first girls' school. Bhidewada was the home of Tatya Saheb Bhide, who was inspired by the trio's work. According to some sources, the school initially had nine girls and later grew to 25. Bhidewada's curriculum included a traditional Western curriculum of math, science, and social studies. Due to social opposition and isolation from the orthodox community, Phule moved to the home of his friend Usman Sheikh. There, Savitribai Phule and Usman's sister, Fatima Sheikh, continued their efforts to educate the girls in the neighborhood.

By the end of 1851, Savitribai and Jyotirao Phule were running three separate schools for girls in Pune. The three schools combined had approximately 150 students. Like the curriculum, the teaching methods at all three schools differed from those used in government schools. Author Divya Kandukuri believes that Phule's methods were considered superior to those used in government schools. Because of the name, the number of girls studying in Phule's schools exceeded the number of boys attending government schools.

Unfortunately, Savitribai and Jyotirao Phule's success faced considerable opposition from conservative locals. Kandukuri says that Savitribai often carried an extra sari to school because her conservative opponents would attack her with stones, cow dung, and abuse. Savitribai and Jyotirao Phule lived at Jyotirao's father's house. However, in 1849, Jyotirao's father asked the couple to leave because their work was considered sinful according to the Manusmriti and related Brahmin texts.

After leaving Jyotirao's father's house, the Phule family moved in with the family of Jyotirao's friend, Usman Sheikh. It was there that Savitribai met Fatima Begum Sheikh, who would become her close friend and colleague. According to Nasreen Syed, a well-known expert on Sheikh, "Fatima Sheikh already knew how to read and write, so her brother Usman, a friend of Jyotirao's, encouraged Fatima to pursue a teacher training course. She went to normal school with Savitribai, and they graduated together. They were the first Muslim women teachers in India." Fatima and Savitribai opened a school in the Sheikh's home in 1849.

In the 1850s, Savitribai and Jyotirao Phule played a key role in starting two educational trusts: the Native Male School, Pune, and the Society for Promoting the Education of Mahars, Mangs, and Others. These two trusts incorporated several schools, led by Savitribai Phule and later Fatima Sheikh. In an interview with the Christian missionary magazine Gyanodaya on September 15, 1853, Jyotirao spoke about Savitribai and his work, saying, "I realized that the education a child receives from its mother is very important and good. Therefore, those who care about the happiness and well-being of this country must pay attention to the condition of women and do their best to educate them if they want the country to progress. With this thought in mind, I first started a school for girls. But my caste brothers did not like that I was educating girls, and my own father expelled us from the house. No one was willing to provide space for the school, nor did we have the money to build it." People were reluctant to send their children to school, but Lahuji Ragh Raut Mang and Ranba Mahar explained the benefits of education to their caste members.

Together with her husband, she taught children from different castes and opened a total of 18 schools. In 1852, three Phule schools were operating, enrolling 273 girls, but by 1858, they had all closed. Eleanor Zelliot attributes these closures to the 1857 rebellion, the withdrawal of government aid, and Jyotirao's resignation from the school management committee due to differences over curriculum. In 1863, the Phule couple, along with their old friend Sadashiv Ballal Govande, started a child murder prevention center called the Bal Hatya Pravartak Griha, primarily for pregnant widows. Pamphlets advertising the center were pasted around Pune, reading: "Widows, come here and give birth to your child safely and secretly. It is your choice whether you want to keep the child at the center or take it with you. This orphanage will care for the children." The Phule couple ran the infanticide prevention centre until the mid-1880s.

Personal Life

Savitribai and Jyotirao had no children of their own. It is said that they adopted Yashwantrao, the son of a Brahmin widow. However, there is currently no definitive evidence for this. It is said that when Yashwantrao was ready for marriage, he had difficulty finding a suitable partner because he was born to a widow. Therefore, Savitribai is believed to have arranged his marriage to the daughter of Dinoba Sasane, a worker in her organization, in February 1889.

Death

In 1897, Savitribai and her adopted son, Yashwant, opened a clinic in the area around Nalasopara to treat those affected by the third global pandemic, the bubonic plague. This clinic was located on the southern outskirts of Pune, in an area free of the infection. Savitribai lost her life while valiantly trying to save the son of Pandurang Babaji Gaekwad. When she learned that Babaji Gaekwad's son had contracted the plague in the Mahar settlement outside Mundhwa, Savitribai Phule rushed to his aid and took him to the hospital. Meanwhile, Savitribai contracted the plague and died at 9:00 pm on March 10, 1897.

Education in India - India's educational status and Education system.

 

India's educational status

Education in India is primarily managed by a government-run public education system, which is controlled at three levels: central, state, and local. Under various articles of the Indian Constitution and the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009, free and compulsory education is guaranteed as a fundamental right to children between the ages of 6 and 14. The ratio of government schools to private schools in India is approximately 10:3.

Education in India encompasses various levels and types of learning, such as early childhood education, primary education, secondary education, higher education, and vocational education. This varies significantly depending on factors such as location (urban or rural), gender, caste, religion, language, and disability.

Education in India faces numerous challenges, including lack of access, quality, and learning outcomes, high dropout rates, and poor job prospects. It is shaped by national and state-level policies and programs such as the National Education Policy 2020, the Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan, the Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan, the Midday Meal Scheme, and the Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (Save the Girl Child). Numerous national and international stakeholders, including UNICEF, UNESCO, the World Bank, civil society organizations, academic institutions, and the private sector, contribute to the development of the education system.

Education in India is plagued by problems such as grade inflation, corruption, the issuance of fake certificates by unrecognized institutions, and a lack of job prospects for graduates. Half of graduates in India are considered unemployable.

This raises concerns about prioritizing Western perspectives over indigenous knowledge. It has also been argued that this system emphasizes rote learning and external perspectives.

In contrast, countries such as Germany, known for its engineering expertise, France, renowned for its aviation advancements, Japan, a global leader in technology, and China, an emerging hub of high-tech innovation, primarily offer education in their respective mother tongues. However, India continues to use English as the primary medium of instruction in higher education and professional domains.

Education system

Until 1976, under the Indian Constitution, each state was responsible for the schools under its jurisdiction; states had full authority (unless there was a conflict with the federal government) to formulate and implement education policies. Following the passage of the 42nd Amendment to the Constitution of India in 1976, education fell under the Concurrent List, allowing the federal government (also known as the central government) to recommend education policies and programs, even though state governments continued to exercise extensive autonomy in implementing these programs. In a large country like India, with 28 states and eight union territories, this has led to significant differences between state policies, plans, programs, and initiatives related to school education. From time to time, national policy frameworks are created to guide states in formulating state-level programs and policies. State governments and local government bodies manage most primary and upper primary schools. 16.86% of government schools were under private management (excluding unaided schools, schools established under the Education Guarantee Scheme, and other learning centers). One-third of privately managed schools are aided and two-thirds are unaided. Enrollment in grades 1-8 is shared between government and privately managed schools in a ratio of 73:27. However, this ratio is higher in rural areas (80:20) and much lower in urban areas (36:66). At the school level, data on enrollment, infrastructure, and teacher availability is collected through the Unified District Information System for Education (UDISE+).

In the 2011 census, approximately 73% of the population was reported to be literate, of which 81% were males and 65% were females. The National Statistical Commission surveyed literacy at 77.7% in 2017-18, with 84.7% for men and 70.3% for women. This compares to 1981, when the rates were 41%, 53%, and 29%. In 1951, the rates were 18%, 27%, and 9%. India's improved education system is often cited as one of the main contributors to its economic growth. Much of the progress, especially in higher education and scientific research, has been attributed to various government institutions. Although enrolment in higher education has steadily increased over the last ten years, with the Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) reaching 26.3% in 2019, there is still a long way to go to reach tertiary education enrolment levels in developed countries, a challenge that will need to be overcome to continue benefiting from the demographic dividend from India's relatively young population.

The demand for private schools has been increasing over the past few years. While there is no consensus yet on the primary reasons for this growth in private schooling, some authors have attributed it to the increased demand for English-medium education, dissatisfaction with the quality of public schools, the increased affordability of private schools, and the lack of preferred fields in government schools. Following the adoption of the Right to Education (RTE) Act in 2009, private schools were required to obtain government recognition. A private school will be eligible for government recognition if it meets certain conditions.

At the primary and secondary levels, India has a large private school system alongside government schools, with 29% of students in the age group of 6 to 14 years receiving private education. Some post-secondary technical schools are also private. The private education market in India had revenues of US$450 million in 2008, but it is estimated to be a US$40 billion market.

According to the Annual Status of Education Report (ASER) 2012, 96.5% of all rural children aged 6-14 were enrolled in school. This trend of higher enrollment has continued since the mid-2000s. According to the ASER report, between 2007 and 2014, India maintained an average school enrollment rate of 95% for children aged 6-14. Consequently, the number of students aged 6-14 not enrolled in school declined to 2.8% in the academic year 2018 (ASER 2018). Another 2013 report stated that 229 million students were enrolled in classes I to XII in India's various recognized urban and rural schools, showing a steady increase, including a 19% increase in enrollment among girls since 2002. While India is moving towards universal enrollment, concerns remain about the quality of education, especially in government schools. While over 95% of children attend primary school, only 40% of Indian adolescents attend secondary school (grades 9–12). Since 2000, the World Bank has provided over $2 billion to support India's efforts to improve educational infrastructure and learning outcomes. Teacher absenteeism remains a major challenge, with studies showing that approximately 25% of teachers may be absent on any given day. Indian states have introduced testing and education assessment systems to identify and improve such schools. The Human Rights Measurement Initiative estimates that India is achieving only 79.0% of the required level of education for its income level.

Although private schools exist in India, they are highly regulated in terms of what they can teach, how they can operate (they must be non-profit to operate a recognized educational institution), and all other aspects of their operations. Therefore, the distinction between government schools and private schools can be misleading. However, a report by Geeta Gandhi Kingdon, titled: The Decline of Public Schools and the Growth of Private Schools in India, states that to formulate sensible education policy, it is important to consider the different changing trends in the size of the private and public schooling sectors in India. Ignoring these trends risks poor policy and legislation, which negatively impacts children's education.

In January 2019, India had over 900 universities and 40,000 colleges. In India's higher education system, a significant number of seats are reserved for historically disadvantaged Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and Other Backward Classes (OBCs) under the Affirmative Action Policy. In universities, colleges, and other similar central government institutions, a maximum of 50% reservation applies to these backward groups, though this may vary at the state level. In 2014, Maharashtra had 73% reservation, the highest percentage of reservation in India.

East India Company in India | History of East India Company

The East India Company was founded in 1600 and dissolved in 1874. It was established to trade in the Indian Ocean region, initially with the East Indies (the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia) and later with East Asia. The company eventually established control over large parts of the Indian subcontinent and Hong Kong. At its peak, the company was, in many ways, the largest corporation in the world and had its own armed forces, including three Presidency armies with approximately 260,000 soldiers.

Initially named "The Governor and Company of Merchants of London Trading into the East Indies," the company was responsible for approximately half of the world's trade in the mid-1700s and early 1800s, particularly in goods such as cotton, silk, indigo, sugar, salt, spices, ginger, tea, precious stones, and later, opium. The company also initiated British rule in the Indian subcontinent.

Ultimately, the company ruled over large parts of the Indian subcontinent, wielding military power and assuming administrative responsibilities. The company's territory in the region gradually expanded after the Battle of Plassey in 1757, and by 1858, most of what is now India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh was either directly under the company's control or a princely state closely allied to it by treaty. Following the Indian Rebellion of 1857, under the Government of India Act of 1858, the British government assumed direct control over what is now Bangladesh, Pakistan, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and India, thus establishing the British Indian Empire.

Later, despite increasing government intervention, the company faced financial difficulties. Under the provisions of the East India Stock Dividend Redemption Act passed a year earlier, the company was dissolved in 1874, as by then the Government of India Act had rendered it an unnecessary, powerless, and outdated institution. The British government took over the administrative responsibilities of the company, and its military units were incorporated into the British army.

History

Beginnings

In 1577, Francis Drake set sail from England on an expedition to plunder Spanish settlements in South America in search of gold and silver. Sailing on the ship named the Golden Hind, he completed this task and then crossed the Pacific Ocean in 1579, a route then known only to the Spanish and Portuguese. Drake eventually reached the East Indies, arriving near the Moluccas, known as the Spice Islands, and met with Sultan Babullah. In exchange for linen, gold, and silver, the English obtained various types of valuable spices, including cloves and nutmeg. Drake returned to England in 1580 and became a national hero; his voyage brought considerable wealth to the English treasury and yielded investors a return of approximately 5,000 percent.

Immediately following the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588, the seizure of Spanish and Portuguese ships and their cargo gave English adventurers the opportunity to travel the world in search of riches. London merchants requested permission from Elizabeth I to sail into the Indian Ocean. Their aim was to break the Spanish and Portuguese monopoly on the Far Eastern trade. Elizabeth granted permission, and in 1591, James Lancaster and two other ships, financed by the Levant Company, sailed on the Bonaventure from the Cape of Good Hope to the Arabian Sea, thus becoming the first English expedition to reach India.

The greatest prize for promoting English trade was the capture of the large Portuguese carrack ship, Madre de Deus, by Walter Raleigh and the Earl of Cumberland at the Battle of Flores on August 13, 1592. When it arrived in Dartmouth, it was the largest ship ever seen in England, and it carried chests filled with precious stones, pearls, gold, silver coins, ambergris, textiles, carpets, black pepper, cloves, cinnamon, nutmeg, benzoin (a highly fragrant balsamic resin used in perfumes and medicines), red dye, cochineal, and ivory. The ship's logbook was also invaluable, containing important information about trade routes to China, India, and Japan. In 1596, three more English ships set sail for the East, but all were lost at sea. However, a year later, Ralph Fitch arrived; he was an adventurous trader who, along with his companions, had undertaken an amazing nine-year journey through Mesopotamia, the Persian Gulf, the Indian Ocean, India, and Southeast Asia. Fitch was consulted on matters relating to India and provided Lancaster with even more valuable information.

Indian Home Rule movement | Objectives of the Home Rule Movement

The Home Rule Movement was the All India Home Rule League, a political organization founded by Bal Gangadhar Tilak in 1916. Its objective was to promote the national demand for self-rule in India under the banner of "Home Rule." Its goal was to achieve dominion status for India within the British Empire. At that time, Australia, Canada, South Africa, New Zealand, and Newfoundland were already dominions within the British Empire.

When World War I began, the liberal faction of the Indian National Congress decided to support Britain. They believed that if India supported Britain, Britain would grant India independence after the war. However, the Indian National Congress soon realized that Britain would never do so, and Indian leaders became dissatisfied and began exploring other avenues. This discontent led to the emergence of the Home Rule Movement. Between 1915 and 1916, two Home Rule Leagues were established: the Pune Home Rule League founded by Bal Gangadhar Tilak and the Madras Home Rule League founded by Annie Besant. The Home Rule League functioned as a subsidiary organization of the Indian National Congress. The movement aimed to achieve self-rule, but it did not advocate the use of violence.

During the Home Rule Movement, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Annie Besant designed a flag in 1917. This flag consisted of five red and four green horizontal stripes, and also featured seven stars. However, this flag did not gain widespread popularity.

Introduction

Mrs. Annie Besant was from Ireland. She was a leader of the Theosophical Society in India. She was deeply influenced by Indian civilization and culture. Therefore, she left Ireland and settled in India, eventually coming to consider India her home. At that time in Ireland, the Irish Home Rule League had been established under the leadership of Irish leader Redmond. The objective of this league was to achieve self-government for Ireland through constitutional and peaceful means. In 1913, when Annie Besant went to England, the Irish Home Rule League asked her to launch a Home Rule movement for independence in India. Mrs. Annie Besant wanted India to have the same level of self-government as other British colonies, meaning she wanted India to achieve dominion status. With this objective in mind, upon returning to India, she joined the Congress Party and, by uniting both moderate and radical leaders, launched the Home Rule movement.

Objectives of the Home Rule Movement

The Home Rule Movement was a constitutional movement. The main objectives of this movement were as follows:

(1) Its main objective was to achieve self-government in India. Annie Besant wanted India to have the same degree of self-government as other colonies in the British Empire. Explaining the objective of the Home Rule Movement, Annie Besant wrote in the first issue of her weekly journal 'Commonweal': “By political reform we mean the establishment of self-government from village panchayats to district boards and municipalities, provincial assemblies and a national parliament. This national parliament would have the same powers as the legislatures of self-governing colonies. Whatever name it may be given, and when representatives of self-governing states are admitted to the British Parliament, India should also have representatives in that Parliament.”

(2) The objective of this movement was neither to drive the British out of India nor to hamper their war efforts. On the contrary, they argued that a self-governing India would be more helpful to the British during the war. Indians were supporting the British in the war because they hoped that the British would grant them self-government after the war. Annie Besant believed that if the British government granted self-government during the war, Indians would support the British war efforts with greater enthusiasm and more resources. Annie Besant believed that a subjugated India could not be as helpful to the British Empire as a free India. Thus, the objective of this movement was indirectly to support Britain in the war.

(3) Another objective of the Home Rule Movement was to prevent Indian politics from taking a radical turn. Annie Besant carefully studied the political trends in India and concluded that if a peaceful and constitutional movement was not started, revolutionary and terrorist elements would dominate Indian politics. To achieve this objective, she considered starting a peaceful and constitutional movement as the best way. According to Dr. Zakaria, “Her plan was to keep the radical nationalists separate from the revolutionaries. She wanted to pacify the Indians by giving them self-government within the British Empire.” To achieve this objective, she launched the Home Rule Movement with the aim of reducing the influence of revolutionaries in Indian politics.

(4) Indian politics had become stagnant during the war, and the national movement had stalled due to a lack of active programs and effective leadership. Therefore, it was essential to awaken the Indian people from their lethargy. To achieve this objective, Annie Besant launched the Home Rule Movement. Annie Besant stated, "I am an 'agitator' for India; my work is to awaken the sleeping Indians, so that they may rise and work for their country." The Home Rule Movement differed from the earlier liberal movement. It was not merely a demand for self-rule for India, but rather a demand for a fundamental right—that self-rule was the birthright of the Indians. Tilak had said, "Freedom is my birthright, and I shall have it." Annie Besant asserted that Home Rule was India's right, and it was absurd to claim that it should be granted as a reward for loyalty. As a nation, India was demanding its rightful place within the British Empire. India had made this demand before the war, would make it during the war, and would continue to make it after the war. But this right was being demanded not as a reward, but as a birthright; there should be no misunderstanding about this.

Background, Commencement, and Progress of the Movement

Bal Gangadhar Tilak was released from prison on June 16, 1914, after completing his six-year sentence. He had spent most of his imprisonment in Mandalay (Burma). Upon returning to India, he found that the country had undergone significant changes. Arvind Ghosh, the revolutionary leader of the Swadeshi movement, had renounced worldly life and was residing in Pondicherry. Lala Lajpat Rai was in America. The Indian National Congress was still reeling from the shock of the Surat split, the repressive actions of the British against revolutionaries, and the disillusionment of the moderate nationalists following the constitutional reforms of 1909.

Tilak believed that the first step should be to bring the extremists back into the Congress. He was convinced that the Indian National Congress had become synonymous with the Indian national movement, and that no national movement could succeed without its support. To win over the moderates, gain their trust, and prevent future repressive actions by the British government, he stated, "I openly declare that we want the same kind of administrative reforms in India as the nationalists in Ireland are demanding. We have no intention of ending British rule. I have no hesitation in saying that the violent incidents that occurred in various parts of India are not only against my ideology, but they have also slowed down our political progress." He reiterated his loyalty to the British government and urged the Indian people to support the British government during this crisis.

Now, all the leaders of the moderate faction felt that what they had done in Surat in 1907 was wrong. They were also dissatisfied with the Congress's inactivity. Tilak's appeal influenced them. Furthermore, Annie Besant was constantly pressuring them to revive the nationalist political movement in the country. Annie Besant had recently joined the Congress. In 1914, she was 66 years old. Her political career began in England, where she was involved in promoting free thought, socialism, Fabianism, and Theosophy. In 1893, she came to India with the aim of working for the Theosophical Society. She established her headquarters in Adyar, a suburb of Madras, and began propagating Theosophy in 1907.  Soon, she gained considerable support, particularly from educated people in communities that had not yet experienced a cultural renaissance. In 1914, Annie Besant decided to broaden the scope of her activities and planned to launch a movement for self-rule in India, modeled after the Irish Home Rule League. She felt that this required the support of the Congress and the cooperation of the extremist faction. To gain the support of the extremists, she felt it was necessary to bring them into the Congress. Annie Besant tried to persuade the moderate leaders of the Congress to allow Tilak and his extremist associates to join the organization. However, the 1914 Congress session thwarted her efforts. Ferozshah Mehta and his supporters in Bombay, along with the moderate leaders from Bengal, succeeded in excluding the extremists. Thereafter, Tilak and Annie Besant decided to pursue their political movement independently, while simultaneously exerting pressure on the Congress to readmit the extremists.

Valley of Flowers National Park - History, Explorers' Records, Location, Geography and Climate

 

Valley of Flowers National Park is an Indian national park established in 1982. Located in Chamoli, Uttarakhand, it is known for its endemic alpine flower meadows and diverse flora. This highly diverse area is also home to rare and endangered animals, including the Asiatic black bear, snow leopard, musk deer, brown bear, red fox, and blue sheep. Birds found in the park include the Himalayan monal pheasant and other high-altitude birds.

At 3,352 to 3,658 meters above sea level, the serene landscape of Valley of Flowers National Park complements the rugged mountain wilderness of Nanda Devi National Park to the east. Together, they form a unique transition zone between the Zanskar and Great Himalayan mountain ranges. The park covers 87.50 km2 and is approximately 8 km long and 2 km wide. It lies entirely within the Temperate Alpine Zone. Both parks fall within the Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve (223,674 ha), which is further surrounded by a buffer zone (5,148.57 km2). The Nanda Devi National Park Reserve is part of the UNESCO World Network of Biosphere Reserves.

The park is open only during the summer months from June to October and remains covered with heavy snow for the rest of the year.

History

Explorers' Records

Because of its remoteness, this place was not widely known to the outside world. In 1931, Frank S. Smyth, Eric Shipton, and R.L. Holdsworth, all British mountaineers, lost their way while returning from a successful expedition to Mount Kamet and arrived in a valley full of flowers. They were captivated by the beauty of the area and named it "Valley of Flowers." Smyth later wrote a book by the same name.

In 1939, Lady Joan Margaret Legge (21 February 1885 – 4 July 1939), a botanist employed by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, came to the valley to study flowers. While climbing some rocky slopes to collect flowers, she slipped and fell to her death. Her sister later visited the valley and erected a memorial near the site.

Professor Chandra Prakash Kala, a botanist at the Wildlife Institute of India, conducted research studies on the valley's flowers and conservation for a decade, beginning in 1993. He compiled a list of 520 alpine plants native to the national park and wrote two books: "The Valley of Flowers – Myth and Reality" and "Ecology and Conservation of the Valley of Flowers National Park, Garhwal Himalaya."

Location

Reaching the Valley of Flowers requires a trek of approximately 17 km (10.5 mi). The nearest major town is Joshimath in Garhwal, which has good road connections to Haridwar and Dehradun, both about 270 km (168 mi) south of Joshimath. From Delhi, one can take a train to Haridwar and then a bus to Govindghat via Rishikesh. Govindghat is about 24 km before another important destination, Badrinath. Govindghat can also be reached by car from Delhi, which is about 500 km away.

Govindghat is a small place near Joshimath (about an hour's driving distance), where the trek begins. From Govindghat, a 4 km shared taxi and then a trek of less than 11 km (8.6 mi) takes trekkers to Ghangaria, a small settlement about 3 km (about 2 mi) from the valley. To reach Ghangaria, one can hire a porter, mule, or even a helicopter. The trek from Govindghat to Ghangaria is common, extending to the Gurudwara Shri Hemkund Sahib Sikh temple in Hemkund, and trekkers may encounter many Sikh pilgrims along the way. As one approaches Ghangaria, fields of fragrant wildflowers, wild rose bushes, and wild strawberries welcome you along the way. Visitors to the Valley of Flowers must obtain a permit from the Forest Department in Ghangaria. The permit is valid for three days. Only daytime sightseeing and trekking are permitted.

Visitors are not permitted to stay inside the national park, and accommodation can be found in Ghangaria. The best time to visit is between July and early September, just after the onset of the monsoon, when the valley is filled with flowers.

Geography

The Valley of Flowers is located in the Pushpavati River valley, in the upper reaches of the Bhyundar Ganga River near Joshimath in the Garhwal region. The lower reaches of the Bhyundar Ganga River near Gobindghat are known as the Bhyundar Valley. The Valley of Flowers, located in the Pushpavati Valley between 30°41' and 30°48'N and 79°33' and 79°46'E, lies 20 km northwest of Nanda Devi National Park, across the broad valley of the Bhyundar Ganga. It is one of two hanging valleys formed at the beginning of the Bhyundar Valley; the other is the smaller Hemkund Valley, which runs parallel to the Valley of Flowers about 10 km south of the Valley of Flowers. The Valley of Flowers is approximately 15 km long from east to west and averages 6 km wide. A small tributary of the Pushpavati River originates from the Tipra Glacier in the Gauri Mountains to the east and flows through the Valley of Flowers.

The area is located in the Zanskar Range of the Himalayas and the highest point in the national park is Gauri Parbat, which is 6,719 m above sea level.

climate

As an inner Himalayan valley, the Nanda Devi Basin has a unique microclimate. Conditions are generally dry and annual rainfall is low, but heavy monsoon rains occur from late June to early September. During the monsoon, fog and low-lying clouds keep the soil moist, resulting in lusher vegetation than in the drier inner Himalayan valleys. Temperatures remain moderate to cool (maximum 19°C) from mid-April to June. The Valley of Flowers also has a microclimate typical of an enclosed inner Himalayan valley, protected from the full impact of the southwest summer monsoon by the Greater Himalayan Range to its south. Heavy fog and rain are frequent during the monsoon, particularly in late summer. Both the basin and valley are typically snow-covered for six to seven months, from late October to late March. Snow accumulates at a greater depth and lower elevation in the shaded southern portions of the valleys than in the northern portions.

Ecology

Biodiversity

The Valley of Flowers, a high-altitude valley in the Himalayas, has long been recognized by renowned mountaineers, botanists, and literature. It has been internationally recognized for over a century and is mentioned in Hinduism. Local people have been visiting the valley since ancient times. It is believed that Indian yogis also visited the valley for meditation. The Valley of Flowers is home to many different colors of flowers, which have evolved over time.

The Valley of Flowers has gained prominence as a region with diverse alpine flora, representing the Western Himalayan alpine shrub and meadow ecoregion. The rich diversity of species reflects its location within a transition zone between the Zanskar and Great Himalayan ranges to the north and south of the valley, respectively, and between the Eastern Himalayan and Western Himalayan flora. Many plant species are considered endangered. Several have not been recorded outside of Uttarakhand. Two have not been recorded in Nanda Devi National Park. The diversity of threatened medicinal plant species is higher than that recorded in other Indian Himalayan protected areas. The entire Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve falls within the Western Himalaya Endemic Bird Area (EBA). The Valley of Flowers National Park is the second core zone of the Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve. Seven restricted-range bird species are endemic to this part of the EBA.

Great Wall of China history and Ming and Qing eras

 

The Great Wall of China is a series of fortifications in China. They were built across the historical northern borders of ancient Chinese states and Imperial China as protection against various nomadic groups from the Eurasian Steppe. The first walls date to the 7th century BC; these were joined together in the Qin dynasty. Successive dynasties expanded the wall system; the best-known sections were built by the Ming dynasty (1368–1644).

To aid in defense, the Great Wall utilized watchtowers, troop barracks, garrison stations, signaling capabilities through the means of smoke or fire, and its status as a transportation corridor. Other purposes of the Great Wall have included border controls (allowing control of immigration and emigration, and the imposition of duties on goods transported along the Silk Road), and the regulation of trade.

The collective fortifications constituting the Great Wall stretch from Liaodong in the east to Lop Lake in the west, and from the present-day Sino–Russian border in the north to Tao River in the south: an arc that roughly delineates the edge of the Mongolian steppe, spanning 21,196.18 km (13,170.70 mi) in total. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and was voted one of the New 7 Wonders of the World in 2007. Today, the defensive system of the Great Wall is recognized as one of the most impressive architectural feats in history.

Great Wall of China history

Early walls

The Chinese were already familiar with the techniques of wall-building by the time of the Spring and Autumn period between the 8th and 5th centuries BC. During this time and the subsequent Warring States period, the states of Zheng, Chu, Qin, Wei, Zhao, Qi, Lu, Han, Yan, Zhongshan and Zhou all constructed extensive fortifications to defend their own borders. Built to withstand the attack of small arms such as swords and spears, these walls were made mostly of stone or by stamping earth and gravel between board frames.

The state of Qin emerged victorious in 221 BC; its ruler, now the First Emperor of a unified China, intended to centralize rule and prevent the resurgence of feudal lords; in doing so, he ordered the destruction of the sections of the walls that divided his empire among the former states. To position the empire against the Xiongnu people from the north, however, he ordered the building of new walls to connect the remaining fortifications along the northern frontier. "Build and move on" was a central guiding principle in constructing the wall, implying that the Chinese were not erecting a permanently fixed border.

Transporting the large quantity of materials required for construction was difficult, so builders always tried to use local resources; stone was used in montane areas, while rammed earth was used while building in the plains. There are no surviving historical records indicating the exact length and course of the Qin walls, as most of the ancient walls have eroded away over the centuries, and very few sections remain today. Later, the Han, the Northern dynasties and the Sui all repaired, rebuilt, or expanded sections of the Great Wall at great cost to defend themselves against northern invaders. The Tang and Song dynasties did not undertake any significant effort in the region. Dynasties founded by non-Han ethnic groups also built border walls: the Xianbei-ruled Northern Wei, the Khitan-ruled Liao, Jurchen-led Jin and the Tangut-established Western Xia, who ruled vast territories over Northern China throughout centuries, all constructed defensive walls, albeit being further north—reaching into the environs of present-day Mongolia—than Han-built fortifications.

Ming and Qing eras

The Ming dynasty made substantial contributions to the Great Wall, following their defeat to the Oirats in the Battle of Tumu. This defeat had come in the context of protracted conflict with Mongol tribes; a new strategy for defense was thus realized by constructing walls along the northern border of China. Acknowledging the Mongol control established in the Ordos Desert, the wall followed the desert's southern edge, instead of incorporating the bend of the Yellow River.

Unlike the earlier fortifications, the Ming construction was stronger and more elaborate, due to the use of bricks and stone instead of rammed earth. Up to 25,000 watchtowers are estimated to have been constructed on the wall. As Mongol raids continued periodically over the years, the Ming devoted considerable resources to repair and reinforce the walls; sections near the Ming capital of Beijing were especially strong. Under general Qi Jiguang's supervision, 1,200 watchtowers from Shanhaiguan Pass to Changping were constructed between 1567 and 1570, and sections of the ram-earth wall were faced with bricks.

During the mid–15th century, the Ming also built a so-called "Liaodong Wall". It enclosed the agricultural heartland of the Liaodong province, protecting it against potential incursions by Jurchen-Mongol Oriyanghan from the northwest and the Jianzhou Jurchens from the north. While stones and tiles were sometimes used here, it was otherwise simply an earth dike with moats on both sides.

Towards the end of the Ming, the Great Wall helped defend the empire against the Manchu invasions that began around 1600. Even after the loss of all of Liaodong, the Ming army held the heavily fortified Shanhai Pass, preventing the Manchus from conquering the Chinese heartland. The Manchus were finally able to cross the Great Wall in 1644, after Beijing had already fallen to Li Zicheng's short-lived Shun dynasty. Before this time, the Manchus had crossed the Great Wall multiple times to raid, but this time it was for conquest. The gates at Shanhai Pass were opened on May 25 by the commanding Ming general, Wu Sangui, who formed an alliance with the Manchus, hoping to use the Manchus to expel the rebels from Beijing. The Manchus quickly seized Beijing instead, and eventually defeated both the Shun dynasty and the remaining Ming resistance, consolidating the rule of the Qing dynasty over all of China proper.

Under Qing rule and the annexation of Mongolia into the empire, China's borders extended beyond the Great Wall; work on it for the purpose of border defense was thus discontinued. Construction nevertheless persisted with projects like the Willow Palisade; following a line similar to that of the Liaodong Wall of the Ming, it was meant to prevent Han Chinese migration into Manchuria.

None of the Europeans who visited China or Mongolia in the 13th and 14th centuries, such as Giovanni da Pian del Carpine, William of Rubruck, Marco Polo, Odoric of Pordenone and Giovanni de' Marignolli, mentioned the Great Wall.

The North African traveler Ibn Battuta, who also visited China during the Yuan dynasty c. 1346, had heard about China's Great Wall, possibly before he had arrived in China. He wrote that the wall is "sixty days' travel" from Zeitun (modern Quanzhou) in his travelogue Gift to Those Who Contemplate the Wonders of Cities and the Marvels of Travelling. He associated it with the legend of the wall mentioned in the Qur'an, which Dhul-Qarnayn (commonly associated with Alexander the Great) was said to have erected to protect people near the land of the rising sun from the savages of Gog and Magog. However, Ibn Battuta could find no one who had either seen it or knew of anyone who had seen it, suggesting that although there were remnants of the wall at that time, they were not significant.

Soon after Europeans reached Ming China by ship in the early 16th century, accounts of the Great Wall started to circulate in Europe, even though no European was to see it for another century. Possibly one of the earliest European descriptions of the wall and of its significance for the defense of the country against the "Tartars" (i.e. Mongols) may be the one contained in Joao de Barros's 1563 Asia. Other early accounts in Western sources include those of Gaspar da Cruz, Bento de Goes, Matteo Ricci, and Bishop Juan González de Mendoza, the latter in 1585 describing it as a "superbious and mightie work" of architecture, though he had not seen it. In 1559, in his work "A Treatise of China and the Adjoyning Regions", Gaspar da Cruz offers an early discussion of the Great Wall. Perhaps the first recorded instance of a European actually entering China via the Great Wall came in 1605, when the Portuguese Jesuit brother Bento de Gois reached the northwestern Jiayu Pass from India. Early European accounts were mostly modest and empirical, closely mirroring contemporary Chinese understanding of the Wall, although later they slid into hyperbole, including the erroneous but ubiquitous claim that the Ming walls were the same ones that were built by the first emperor in the 3rd century BC.

When China opened its borders to foreign merchants and visitors after its defeat in the First and Second Opium Wars, the Great Wall became a main attraction for tourists. The travelogues of the later 19th century further enhanced the reputation and the mythology of the Great Wall.

Culture of India - Religious culture and Family Structure and Marriage

 

Indian culture is the legacy of social norms and technologies that originated in or are associated with the ethno-linguistically diverse nation of India. It was the Indian subcontinent until 1947 and, after 1947, the Republic of India. The term also applies to countries and cultures outside India whose history is strongly connected to India through immigration, colonization, or influence, particularly in South Asia and Southeast Asia. India's languages, religions, dance, music, architecture, cuisine, and customs vary across the country.

Indian culture, often described as a fusion of Indian Hindu, Indian Muslim, Indian Sikh, and many other cultures, has been influenced by a history spanning thousands of years, beginning with the Indus Valley Civilization and other early cultural regions. India has one of the oldest continuous cultural traditions in the world.

Many aspects of Indian culture, such as Indian religion, math, philosophy, food, languages, dance, music, and films, have had a profound impact on the Indosphere, Greater India, and the world. The British Raj further impacted Indian culture, such as the widespread introduction of the English language, which led to the creation of a local English dialect and its influence on Indian languages.

Religious culture

Indian religions like Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism are all based on the concepts of dharma and karma. Ahimsa, the philosophy of non-violence, is an essential aspect of indigenous Indian religions, whose most well-known proponent was Mahatma Gandhi, who used civil disobedience to unite India during the Indian independence movement – ​​a philosophy that further inspired Martin Luther King Jr. and James Bevel during the American Civil Rights Movement. Religions of foreign origin, including Abrahamic religions such as Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, are also present in India, as are Zoroastrianism and the Baha'i Faith.

India comprises 28 states and 8 union territories with diverse cultures and is the world's most populous country. Indian culture, often described as a melting pot of diverse cultures, spans the entire Indian subcontinent and has been influenced and shaped by a history spanning thousands of years. Throughout India's history, Indian culture has been significantly influenced by various religious traditions. Ancient India and early Hinduism were influenced by East/Southeast Asian cultures, particularly through Austroasiatic groups such as the early Munda and Mon Khmer, but also by Tibetan and other Tibeto-Burman groups, which significantly impacted local Indian peoples and culture. Many scholars, such as Professor Przelewski, Jules Bloch, and Lévi, and others, have concluded that early India suffered a significant cultural, linguistic, and political Mon-Khmer (Austroasiatic) influence, as evidenced by Austroasiatic loanwords in Indo-Aryan languages ​​and the cultivation of rice, which was introduced by East/Southeast Asian rice-agriculturalists using a route from Southeast Asia through Northeast India into the Indian subcontinent. They are credited with shaping Indian philosophy, literature, architecture, art, and music. Greater India was the historical scope of Indian culture beyond the Indian subcontinent. This is particularly associated with the spread of Hinduism, Buddhism, architecture, administration, and writing systems from India to other parts of Asia via the Silk Road by travelers and maritime traders in the early centuries of the Common Era. To the west, Greater India overlaps with Greater Persia in the Hindu Kush and Pamir mountains. Over the centuries, India has witnessed a great fusion of cultures, including Buddhists, Hindus, Muslims, Jains, Sikhs, and various tribal populations.

India is the birthplace of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, and other religions. These are collectively known as Indian religions. Indian religions, along with the Abrahamic religions, constitute a major part of the world's religions. Today, Hinduism and Buddhism are the third and fourth largest religions in the world, with a combined following of over 2 billion, and possibly as many as 2.5 or 2.6 billion. Followers of Indian religions—Hindus, Sikhs, Jains, and Buddhists—make up approximately 80–82% of India's population.

India is one of the most religiously and ethnically diverse countries in the world, with some societies and cultures being the most religious. Religion plays a significant and important role in the lives of many people here. Although India is a secular Hindu-majority country, it also has a significant Muslim population. Hindus constitute a majority of the population in all 28 states and eight union territories, with the exception of Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Mizoram, and Lakshadweep. Muslims are present throughout India, with significant populations in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra, Kerala, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, and Assam; while only Jammu and Kashmir and Lakshadweep have a majority Muslim population. Christians are India's second-largest minority.

The diversity of religious groups in India has led to a history of turmoil and violence among them. India has been a hotbed of violent religious conflicts between people of different faiths, including Hindus, Christians, Muslims, and Sikhs. Many groups have formed separate national-religious political parties, and despite government policies, minority religious groups continue to face discrimination from more powerful groups seeking to maintain and control resources in specific areas of India.

According to the 2011 census, 79.8% of India's population practices Hinduism. Islam (14.2%), Christianity (2.3%), Sikhism (1.7%), Buddhism (0.7%), and Jainism (0.4%) are the other major religions in India. Many tribal religions, such as Sarnaism, are found in India, although these have been influenced by major religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, and Christianity. Jainism, Zoroastrianism, Judaism, and the Bahá'í Faith are also influential, but in smaller numbers. Atheism and agnosticism also have a marked influence in India, as well as a tolerance of other religions.

Atheism and agnosticism have a long history in India and flourished in the Shramana movement. The Charvaka sect began in India around the 6th century BCE. It is one of the earliest forms of materialist and atheistic movement in ancient India. Shramanas, Buddhism, Jainism, Ajivikas, and some sects of Hinduism uphold atheism and reject the idea of ​​a creator god, rituals, and superstition. India has produced some well-known atheist politicians and social reformers. According to the 2012 WIN-Gallup Global Index of Religion and Atheism report, 81% of Indians were religious, 13% were not religious, 3% were confirmed atheists, and 3% were undecided or did not respond.

Family Structure and Marriage

For generations, the joint family system has been prevalent in India. This occurs when the elder members of the family—parents, children, their spouses, and their children—live together. Typically, the head of the joint Indian family system is the eldest male member. He makes most of the important decisions and rules, and other family members are required to follow them. Nowadays, due to the economy, lifestyle, and high cost of living in most metro cities, people are abandoning the joint family model and adopting the nuclear family model. Previously, the purpose of living in a joint family was to foster love and concern for family members. However, now, spending time with each other is a challenge as more and more of them live abroad to support their needs. The rise of the nuclear family trend has altered the traditional family headship structure, and older men are no longer essential heads of the family, as they often live alone in old age and become more vulnerable than ever.

In a 1966 study, Orenstein and Micklin analyzed India's population data and family structure. Their study showed that Indian households remained relatively consistent in size between 1911 and 1951. Subsequently, with urbanization and economic development, India saw the breakdown of traditional joint families into more nuclear-like families. In his book, Sinha, after summarizing numerous sociological studies on the Indian family, notes that over the past 60 years, the cultural trend in most parts of India has been a rapid shift from joint families to nuclear families, similar to population trends in other parts of the world. In the 1990s, traditionally large joint families constituted a small percentage of Indian households, and average per capita household income was low. He found that joint families persisted in some areas and situations, partly due to cultural traditions and partly due to practical reasons. Due to differing ideologies of rural and urban parenting, young people from lower socioeconomic classes tend to spend more time with their families than their peers. With the spread of education and the growth of the economy, the traditional joint-family system is rapidly breaking down across India, and attitudes toward working women have changed.

Colosseum - Exterior of the Colosseum and Interior of the Colosseum

 

The chosen site was a flat area at the bottom of a low valley between the Caelian, Esquiline, and Palatine hills, through which flowed a canal-like stream and an artificial lake/swamp. The area was densely populated until the second century BC. It was devastated by the Great Fire of Rome in 64 AD, after which Nero seized much of the area to add to his personal domain. He built the magnificent Domus Aurea on the site, in front of which he created an artificial lake surrounded by pavilions, gardens, and verandas. The existing Aqua Claudia aqueduct was extended to supply water to the area, and Nero's massive bronze Colossus was erected nearby at the entrance to the Domus Aurea.

Although the Colossus was saved, much of the Domus Aurea was demolished. The lake was filled in, and the land was reused for the new Flavian Amphitheater. The gladiatorial school and other support buildings were built near the former arena of the Domus Aurea. Vespasian's decision to build the Colosseum on the site of Nero's lake can be seen as a populist move to return to the people the area of ​​the city that Nero had taken for his own use. Unlike many other amphitheaters built on the outskirts of the city, the Colosseum was built in the city center, effectively placing it in the heart of Rome, both symbolically and geographically.

Following the First Jewish-Roman War in 70 AD, when Jerusalem was under siege, its construction was funded by the magnificent materials looted from the Jewish Temple. According to a reconstructed inscription found at the site, "The Emperor Vespasian ordered this new amphitheater to be built from his general's share of the spoils." It is often believed, as with many other Roman projects of the time, that slaves and prisoners of war were brought back to Rome and provided the vast majority of the labor needed to build the amphitheater. Alongside this free labor, teams of professional Roman builders, engineers, artists, painters, and decorators performed the more specialized work required to construct the Colosseum. The Colosseum was constructed from a variety of materials: wood, limestone, tuff, tiles, cement, and mortar.

Construction of the Colosseum began during the reign of Vespasian, around 70-72 AD (some sources state 73-75 AD). By the time of Vespasian's death in 79, the Colosseum had been completed up to the third floor. His son, Titus, completed the top level in 80, and the first games were held in 80 or 81 AD. Dio Cassius states that over 9,000 wild animals were killed during the first games in the amphitheater. Commemorative coins were issued to mark the inauguration. The building was further renovated under Vespasian's younger son, the newly crowned emperor Domitian, who built the Hypogeum, a series of tunnels used to house animals and slaves. He also constructed a gallery above the Colosseum to increase its seating capacity.

In 217, the Colosseum was severely damaged by a major fire (according to Dio Cassius, started by lightning) that destroyed the wooden upper level of the amphitheater. It was not fully repaired until around 240, and further repairs were made in 250 or 252, and again in 320. Honorius banned the practice of gladiator fights in 399 and again in 404. The last mention of gladiator fights is from around 435. An inscription records repairs to various parts of the Colosseum under Theodosius II and Valentinian III (reigned 425–455), perhaps to repair damage caused by a major earthquake in 443; further work occurred in 484 and 508. The arena continued to be used for fights until the 6th century. The hunting of animals continued at least until 523, when Anicius Maximus celebrated his consulship with some Veneticians, who had been reviled by King Theodoric the Great for their high prices.

Exterior of the Colosseum

Unlike Roman theaters built on hills, the Colosseum is a completely different structure. Its basic exterior and interior architecture is derived from two theaters built back to back. It is elliptical in plan and measures 189 m (615 ft / 640 Roman ft) long and 156 m (510 ft / 528 Roman ft) wide, with a base area of ​​24,000 square meters (6 acres). The outer wall is 48 m (157 ft / 165 Roman ft) high. Its perimeter was initially 545 m (1,788 ft / 1,835 Roman ft). The central arena is an ellipse, 87 m (287 ft) long and 55 m (180 ft) wide, surrounded by a 5 m (15 ft) high wall, topped by seating.

It is estimated that the outer wall required over 100,000 cubic meters (3.5 million cubic feet) of travertine stone, which was laid without mortar; held together by 300 tons of iron clamps. However, it has suffered significant damage over the centuries, with large sections collapsing after earthquakes. The northern section of the surrounding wall still stands; the distinctive triangular brickwork at both ends is modern, added in the early 19th century to strengthen the wall. The exterior of the Colosseum that remains today is actually the original inner wall.

The surviving large portion of the outer wall comprises three upper and lower stories, topped by a podium, topped by a high attic, both with windows at regular intervals. The arcades are composed of half-columns of the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, while the attic is adorned with Corinthian pilasters. Each arch of the second and third-story arcades features statues, likely honoring gods and other characters from Classical mythology.

Two hundred and forty mast-like corbels stood above the attic. They initially supported a retractable canopy, called the velarium, which protected spectators from sun and rain. This was a canvas-covered, net-like structure made of ropes, with a hole in the center. It covered two-thirds of the arena and sloped downward toward the center to catch the breeze and provide ventilation to the spectators. The velarium was staffed by sailors specially recruited from the Roman Navy headquarters at Misenum, housed in the nearby Castra Misenacium.

The Colosseum's massive crowds necessitated rapid filling and emptying. Its architects addressed this problem by employing methods similar to those used in modern stadiums. There were 80 entrances at ground level around the amphitheater, 76 of which were used by the general public. Each entrance and exit was numbered, as were each staircase. The northern main entrance was reserved for the Roman emperor and his entourage, while the other three axial entrances were likely used by the wealthy. All four axial entrances were richly decorated with painted stucco reliefs, fragments of which remain. Many of the original outer entrances have disappeared with the collapse of the wall, but Entrances XXIII (23) to LIIII (54) remain.

Spectators were issued tickets in the form of numbered pottery fragments, which directed them to the correct section and line. They reached their seats through vomitoria (singular vomitorium), openings in a row of seats from below or behind. These allowed people to reach their seats quickly and, after the event was over or in case of emergency, could be evacuated within minutes. The name vomitoria comes from the Latin word meaning rapid discharge, from which the English word vomit is derived.

Interior of the Colosseum

According to the Codex-Calendar of 354, the Colosseum could seat 87,000 people, though modern estimates place the number at around 50,000. They were seated in a tiered arrangement that reflected the strictly segregated nature of Roman society. The emperor and the Vestal Virgins were given special boxes at the north and south ends, respectively, which offered the best views of the arena. On either side, at the same level, was a wide platform or podium for the senatorial class, who were allowed to bring their own chairs. The names of some senators from the 5th century can still be seen engraved in the stonework; perhaps seats were reserved for them.

The tier above the senators, called the Maenianum Primum, housed non-senatorial nobles or knights (equites). The next level, the Maenianum Secundum, was initially for ordinary Roman citizens (plebeians) and was divided into two sections. The lower section (immum) was for wealthy citizens, while the upper section (summum) was for poorer citizens. Special areas were created for other social groups: boys with their tutors, soldiers on leave, foreign dignitaries, writers, heralds, priests, etc. Stone (and later marble) seating was provided for citizens and nobles, who may have brought their own cushions. Inscriptions identify areas reserved for specific groups.

During the reign of Domitian, another level, the Maenianum Secundum in Legnis, was added to the top of the building. It contained a gallery for the common poor, slaves, and women. There was either standing room only, or the wooden benches were extremely high. Certain groups were banned from the Colosseum altogether, notably gravediggers, actors, and former gladiators.

Each tier was divided into sections (maeniana) by winding passages and low walls (precincts or baltei), and into cunei, or wedges, by stairs and corridors leading from the vomitoria. Each row of seats (gradus) was numbered, so that each seat could be identified precisely by its gradus, cuneus, and number.