History of the Indian Independence Movement.

The Indian freedom struggle is considered one of the most impactful movements in world history. This struggle was not limited merely to gaining political independence from British rule; it was also a profound quest for social justice and human dignity.

It united millions of Indians—diverse in region, religion, and social background—under a common goal and left an indelible mark on the global struggle against imperialism. The British rule in India, which began after the Battle of Plassey in 1757, had far-reaching consequences for the Indian subcontinent.

The British East India Company and the subsequent British Crown exploited India's resources, leading to social disruption and political subjugation. The colonial administration imposed taxes on Indian farmers, resulting in widespread poverty and famine. Traditional industries and the textile sector were completely destroyed by the massive influx of cheap British goods. British policies had a profound impact on Indian society; these policies fostered divisions based on religion and region.

While the spread of Western education and the judicial system helped modernize certain aspects of Indian society, it also gave rise to a new class of English-educated Indians who began to question colonial rule.

The Uprising of 1857 was a pivotal milestone in the Indian struggle for independence. Sparked by widespread discontent among Indian soldiers in the British army, the uprising rapidly spread across various parts of India, particularly in the northern and central regions.

Although the uprising was eventually suppressed, it marked the beginning of resistance against British rule. The Uprising of 1857 highlighted the deep-seated resentment among the Indian people against British rule and demonstrated their capacity for collective action.

The brutal suppression of the revolt by the British—including the execution of rebels and the destruction of villages—further alienated the Indian people from the British. The Indian freedom struggle reached new heights under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi.

After returning to India from South Africa in 1915, Gandhi soon became a leader of the Indian National Congress and adopted the principles of Satyagraha and non-violence as the guiding principles of the struggle.

Mahatma Gandhi believed that true freedom would be attained through moral and spiritual strength rather than violence. His campaigns—such as the Non-Cooperation Movement, the Dandi March, and the Quit India Movement—mobilized millions of Indians across the country. The 'Dandi March' of 1930 was one of the most significant and historic events in the Indian freedom struggle.

To break the British monopoly on salt and to produce salt, Gandhi undertook a 240-mile march on foot to the shores of the Arabian Sea. This Dandi March awakened the entire nation and drew the world's attention to India's struggle for independence. World War II had a profound impact on the Indian freedom struggle. Britain's decision to involve India in the war without consulting Indian leaders sparked a wave of widespread anger and frustration.

The 'Quit India' movement, launched by Mahatma Gandhi in 1942, demanded an immediate end to British rule and marked the final major phase of the freedom struggle. The British responded to the 'Quit India' movement with extreme brutality, involving mass arrests and firing. Nevertheless, the movement demonstrated the Indian people's firm resolve to attain independence and showed that British rule in India could no longer be sustained.

India finally gained independence on August 15, 1947, but the country was partitioned into India and Pakistan. This partition, based on religious lines, triggered one of the largest migrations in human history and sparked widespread communal violence; millions of people were killed, and tens of millions were displaced.

The Partition of India and Pakistan was a painful and complex event; it was shaped by numerous factors such as British colonial policies, the rise of communalism, and the failure of political negotiations. While independence marked the end of British rule, it also inflicted deep wounds whose impact continues to be felt in the politics and society of the Indian subcontinent to this day.

The Indian freedom struggle holds a unique place in world history; this is not only because it successfully challenged an immensely powerful empire of that era, but also because of the emphasis it placed on non-violence, unity, and morality. This struggle inspired anti-colonial movements across Africa, Asia, and the Americas, and leaders such as Nelson Mandela and Martin Luther King Jr. drew upon its principles in their own fights for justice.

This freedom struggle laid the foundation of modern India and, in doing so, shaped the country's democratic institutions, legal framework, and national identity. The values of secularism and social justice enshrined in the Indian Constitution are rooted in the ideals of the Indian freedom struggle.

The Indian freedom struggle was a multifaceted movement; it encompassed not only the quest for political independence but also the pursuit of social justice, economic self-reliance, and national identity. The significance of this struggle extended beyond the mere attainment of freedom, residing also in the enduring legacy of the principles and values it left behind. Even today, it serves as a powerful reminder of the capacity to bring about profound social and political transformation through non-violent means in pursuit of a just cause.

Savitribai Phule's Educational Revolution.

Savitribai Phule established the first school for girls in 1848 and created an invaluable legacy by championing causes such as social equality, widow remarriage, and inter-caste marriage. Savitribai Phule was a prominent social reformer and a significant figure in India's struggle for freedom. Her husband, Jyotirao Phule, educated her, and she dedicated her life to the cause of women's education.

Savitribai Phule was born in the small village of Naigaon in Maharashtra. She hailed from an economically disadvantaged family belonging to the Mali community. She was married to social reformer Jyotirao Phule at the tender age of nine. At the time of her marriage, she was illiterate—a common situation for women in India back then. However, recognizing her determination, Jyotirao took on the responsibility of educating her.

Jyotirao Phule became her mentor and introduced her to education, paving the way for her to become a teacher. Under Jyotirao's guidance, Savitribai completed her education with great determination. With the support of friends, she excelled in the field of education and became India's first female teacher. Alongside her husband, Savitribai fought against caste discrimination.

She helped establish the 'Satyashodhak Samaj,' a social reform organization. Savitribai firmly raised her voice for the rights of widows. Securing the right to remarriage for widows was a primary objective of her efforts; through this, she challenged the traditional norms that alienated widows from the social mainstream. Dedicating their lives to social reform, Savitribai and Jyotirao fought against untouchability and strove for the upliftment of backward castes through public awareness campaigns.

Their unwavering commitment to eradicating social injustice left an indelible mark on India's history. Savitribai fought against regressive practices such as child marriage, female foeticide, and the ‘Sati’ system, while also advocating for widow remarriage and inter-caste marriages. A social reformer and poet, Savitribai Phule played a pivotal role in the struggle for women's rights in India during British rule.

In 1848, Savitribai and her husband, Jyotirao Phule, established the first school for girls in India at Bhide Wada in Pune. Born on January 3, 1831, in Naigaon, Maharashtra, Savitribai was the eldest daughter of Lakshmi and Khandoji Nevase Patil. At the age of nine, she was married to 13-year-old Jyotirao Phule, who later became a prominent social reformer in Maharashtra.

Initially illiterate, Savitribai was educated and made literate by her husband, Jyotirao Phule—an endeavor that involved challenging social norms opposed to women's education. Despite facing numerous challenges, she remained steadfast in her mission. Savitribai Phule, along with her husband Jotiba Phule, established the country's first school for girls in 1848. Going beyond just education, she championed causes such as women's rights, social equality, and widow remarriage.

Savitribai was also a renowned poet and social reformer. At that time, education for women was a rarity. Defying prevailing social norms, Savitribai and Jotiba Phule opened India's first girls' school at Bhide Wada in Pune in 1848. Despite facing opposition, Savitribai expanded the number of schools to three by 1851, with a total of 150 female students; more girls were drawn to Savitribai's schools than to government-run ones.

However, due to familial opposition to their initiatives, Savitribai and Jotiba Phule were forced to leave their home. Savitribai also established educational institutions for marginalized communities. In recognition of her contributions to education, the British government honored her as the 'Best Teacher' in 1852. Savitribai Phule played a pivotal role in promoting women's education in India.

By challenging social conventions and opening the first school for girls in Pune in 1848, she paved the way for future generations of women to receive an education. To combat the widespread practices of female foeticide and infanticide—which often targeted Brahmin widows—she established the 'Balhatya Pratibandhak Griha' (Home for the Prevention of Infanticide) in 1863.

She actively opposed child marriage and the practice of Sati, while also advocating for the rights of widows to remarry and live independently if they so chose. Savitribai founded the 'Mahila Seva Mandal' to champion women's rights; she fought specifically against the inhumane practice of forcibly shaving the heads of widows.

She, along with her husband Jyotirao Phule, founded the 'Satyashodhak Samaj' to fight against caste discrimination and advocate for the rights of marginalized sections of society, such as Dalits and women. Savitribai Phule’s legacy as a pioneering figure in women's education is etched in golden letters in the history of India. By establishing the first school for girls in 1848, she challenged the social norms of the time and set a precedent for educational equality.

In collaboration with Jyotirao Phule, she fought against caste discrimination and founded the 'Satyashodhak Samaj.' Savitribai championed causes such as the rights of widows, opposition to regressive social practices, and widow remarriage. Her literary works offered commentary on various social issues. The annual observance of 'Savitribai Phule Jayanti' serves as a reminder of her contributions; her legacy continues to inspire movements for social justice, education, and gender equality in India today.

Savitribai Phule, a great social reformer, passed away on March 10, 1897. She left behind a legacy of tireless work dedicated to education and social equality. Her passing marked the end of a life devoted to challenging social norms and fighting against injustice. She died while making a courageous attempt to save the life of a ten-year-old boy during the plague epidemic.

A historic Quit India movement.

The Quit India Movement was a political campaign launched at the Bombay session of the All India Congress Committee by Mahatma Gandhi on 8 August 1942, during World War II, demanding an end to British rule in India. After Britain failed to secure Indian support for the British war effort with the Cripps Mission, Gandhi made a call to Do or Die in his Quit India speech delivered in Bombay on 8 August 1942 at the Gowalia Tank Maidan. Viceroy Linlithgow described the movement as "by far the most serious rebellion since 1857".

The All India Congress Committee launched a mass protest demanding what Gandhi called "An Orderly British Withdrawal" from India. Even though it was at war, Britain was prepared to act. Almost the entire leadership of the Indian National Congress was imprisoned without trial within hours of Gandhi's speech. Most spent the rest of the war in prison and out of contact with the masses. The British had the support of the Viceroy's Council, of the All India Muslim League, the Hindu Mahasabha, the princely states, the Indian Imperial Police, the British Indian Army, and the Indian Civil Service. Many Indian businessmen profiting from heavy wartime spending did not support the Quit India Movement. The major outside support came from the Americans, as President Franklin D. Roosevelt pressured Prime Minister Winston Churchill to give in to some of the Indian demands.

The movement included anti-British boycotts and rejection of transactions involving the colonial government. Various violent incidents took place around the country against British rule, and the colonial government arrested tens of thousands of leaders, keeping them imprisoned until 1945. Ultimately, the British realised that India was ungovernable in the long run, and the issue for the postwar era became how to exit gracefully and peacefully. The movement ended in 1945 with the release of all jailed nationalists. Prominent independence activists who died during the movement include Mukunda Kakati, Matangini Hazra, Kanaklata Barua, Kushal Konwar, Bhogeswari Phukanani and others. In 1992, the Reserve Bank of India issued a 1 rupee commemorative coin to mark the Golden Jubilee of the Quit India Movement.

World War II and Indian involvement

In 1939, Indian nationalists were angry that British Governor-General of India, Lord Linlithgow, brought India into the war without consultation with them. The Muslim League supported the war, but Congress was divided.

At the outbreak of war, the Congress Party had passed a resolution during the Wardha meeting of the working committee in September 1939, conditionally supporting the fight against the Axis, but were rebuffed when they asked for independence in return:

If the war is to defend the status quo of imperialist possessions and colonies, of vested interest and privilege, then India can have nothing to do with it. If, however, the issue is democracy and world order based on democracy, then India is intensely interested in it... If Great Britain fights for the maintenance and expansion of democracy, then she must necessarily end imperialism in her possessions and establish full democracy in India, and the Indian people have the right to self-determination... A free democratic India will gladly associate herself with other free nations for mutual defence against aggression and for economic co-operation.

Gandhi had not supported this initiative, as he could not reconcile an endorsement for war (he was a committed believer in non-violent resistance, used in the Indian Independence Movement and proposed even against Adolf Hitler, Benito Mussolini, and Hideki Tojo). However, at the height of the Battle of Britain, Gandhi had stated his support for the fight against racism and of the British war effort, stating he did not seek to raise an independent India from the ashes of Britain. However, opinions remained divided. The long-term British policy of limiting investment in India and using the country as a market and source of revenue had left the Indian Army relatively weak and poorly armed and trained and forced the British to become net contributors to India's budget, while taxes were sharply increased and the general level of prices doubled: although many Indian businesses benefited from increased war production, in general business "felt rebuffed by the government" and in particular the refusal of the British Raj to give Indians a greater role in organising and mobilising the economy for wartime production.

History of the Indian Constitution.

The Constitution of India is the supreme legal document of India, and the longest written national constitution in the world. The document lays down the framework that demarcates fundamental political code, structure, procedures, powers, and duties of government institutions and sets out fundamental rights, directive principles, and the duties of citizens.

It espouses constitutional supremacy (not parliamentary supremacy found in the United Kingdom, since it was created by a constituent assembly rather than Parliament) and was adopted with a declaration in its preamble. The Indian Constitution does not contain a provision to limit the powers of the parliament to amend the constitution. However, the Supreme Court in Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala held that there were certain features of the Constitution so integral to its functioning and existence that they could never be cut out of the constitution (known as the 'Basic Structure' Doctrine).

The Government of India Act 1935, mainly drafted by Samuel Hoare, provided the basis for the constitution of India. The Constituent Assembly of India adopted the constitution on 26 November 1949 and became effective on 26 January 1950. It became the country's fundamental governing document, and the Dominion of India became the Republic of India. To ensure constitutional autochthony, its framers repealed prior acts of the British parliament, in Article 395. India celebrates its constitution on 26 January as Republic Day.

The constitution declares India a sovereign, socialist, secular, and democratic republic, assures its citizens justice, equality, and liberty, and endeavours to promote fraternity. The original 1950 constitution is preserved in a nitrogen-filled case at the Parliament Library Building in New Delhi.

Background

In 1928, the All Parties Conference convened a committee in Lucknow to prepare the Constitution of India, which was known as the Nehru Report.

With the exception of scattered French and Portuguese exclaves, India was under the British rule from 1858 to 1947. From 1947 to 1950, the same legislation continued to be implemented as India was a dominion of United Kingdom for these three years, as most of the princely states were convinced by Jawaharlal Nehru, Sardar Patel and Louis Mountbatten to sign the articles of integration with India, and the British Government continued to be responsible for the external security of the country. Thus, the constitution of India repealed the Indian Independence Act 1947 and Government of India Act 1935 when it became effective on 26 January 1950. India ceased to be a dominion of the British Crown and became a sovereign, democratic republic with the constitution. Articles 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 60, 324, 366, 367, 379, 380, 388, 391, 392, 393, and 394 of the constitution came into force on 26 November 1949, and the remaining articles became effective on 26 January 1950 which is celebrated every year in India as Republic Day.

Previous legislation

The Indian constitution was drawn from a number of sources, mainly the Government of India Act 1935 which was significantly drafted by Samuel Hoare. Mindful of India's needs and conditions, its framers borrowed features of previous legislation such as the Government of India Act 1858, the Indian Councils Acts of 1861, 1892 and 1909, the Government of India Acts 1919 and 1935, and the Indian Independence Act 1947. The latter, which led to the creation of Pakistan, divided the former Constituent Assembly in two. Each new assembly had sovereign power to draft and enact a new constitution for the separate states.

Constituent Assembly

The constitution was drafted by the Constituent Assembly, which was elected by elected members of the provincial assemblies. The 389-member assembly (reduced to 299 after the partition of India) took almost three years to draft the constitution holding eleven sessions over a 165-day period.

In the constitution assembly, a member of the drafting committee, T. T. Krishnamachari said:

Mr. President, Sir, I am one of those in the House who have listened to Dr. Ambedkar very carefully. I am aware of the amount of work and enthusiasm that he has brought to bear on the work of drafting this Constitution. At the same time, I do realise that that amount of attention that was necessary for the purpose of drafting a constitution so important to us at this moment has not been given to it by the Drafting Committee. The House is perhaps aware that of the seven members nominated by you, one had resigned from the House and was replaced. One died and was not replaced. One was away in America and his place was not filled up and another person was engaged in State affairs, and there was a void to that extent. One or two people were far away from Delhi and perhaps reasons of health did not permit them to attend. So it happened ultimately that the burden of drafting this constitution fell on Dr. Ambedkar and I have no doubt that we are grateful to him for having achieved this task in a manner which is undoubtedly commendable.

Biography of Prime Minister Indira Gandhi

Indira Priyadarshini Gandhi was an Indian stateswoman who twice served as the Prime Minister of India from 1966 to 1977 and again from 1980 until her assassination in 1984. She was India's first and only female prime minister, and a central figure in Indian politics as the leader of the Indian National Congress (INC). Gandhi also served as chairperson of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) from 1983 to 1984, becoming the first Indian to hold the position. She was the daughter of Jawaharlal Nehru, the first prime minister of India, and the mother of Rajiv Gandhi, who succeeded her as prime minister. Her cumulative tenure of 15 years and 350 days, spanning four terms, makes her the second-longest-serving Indian prime minister after her father.

During her father Jawaharlal Nehru's premiership from 1947 to 1964, Gandhi was his hostess and accompanied him on his numerous foreign trips. In 1959, she played a part in the dissolution of the communist-led Kerala state government as then-president of the Indian National Congress, otherwise a ceremonial position to which she was elected earlier that year. Lal Bahadur Shastri, who had succeeded Nehru as prime minister upon his death in 1964, appointed her minister of information and broadcasting in his government; the same year she was elected to the Rajya Sabha, the upper house of the Indian Parliament. After Shastri's death in January 1966, Gandhi defeated her rival, Morarji Desai, in the INC's parliamentary leadership election to become leader and also succeeded Shastri as prime minister. With her premiership of India she became the world's second female prime minister after Sirimavo Bandaranaike. She led the Congress to victory in two subsequent elections, starting with the 1967 general election, in which she was first elected to the lower house of the Indian parliament, the Lok Sabha. In 1971, her party secured its first landslide victory since her father's sweep in 1962, focusing on issues such as poverty.

As prime minister, Gandhi was known for her uncompromising political stances and centralisation of power within the executive branch. In 1967, she headed a military conflict with China in which India repelled Chinese incursions into the Himalayas. In 1971, she went to war with Pakistan in support of the independence movement and war of independence in East Pakistan, which resulted in an Indian victory, the end of the Bangladeshi genocide, and the independence of Bangladesh, as well as an increase in India's influence to the point where it became the sole regional power in South Asia. Another military operation against Pakistan, codenamed Operation Meghdoot, occurred during her tenure in 1984, which led to India expanding the territory it effectively controlled in the disputed Kashmir region.

Gandhi also played a crucial role in initiating India's first successful nuclear weapon test in 1974. Her rule saw India grow closer to the Soviet Union by signing a friendship treaty in 1971 to ward off perceived geopolitical threat as a result of the U.S. warming up to China. India received military, financial, and diplomatic support from the Soviet Union during its conflict with Pakistan in the same year. Though India was at the forefront of the Non-Aligned Movement, Gandhi made it one of the Soviet Union's closest allies in Asia, each often supporting the other in proxy wars and at the United Nations.

Responding to separatist tendencies and a call for revolution, she instituted a state of emergency from 1975 to 1977, during which she ruled by decree and basic civil liberties were suspended. More than 100,000 political opponents, journalists and dissenters were imprisoned. Following the Emergency, the INC lost the 1977 election in the midst of massive anti-incumbency sentiment — the first such loss for the INC in the history of the Republic of India. She even lost her own parliamentary constituency. However, due to her portrayal as a strong leader and the weak governance of the Janata Party, her party won the next election by a landslide and she returned to the premiership.

She faced the Sikh separatist movement throughout her fourth premiership; in response, she ordered Operation Blue Star, which involved military action in the Golden Temple and killed hundreds of Sikhs. On 31 October 1984, she was assassinated by two of her bodyguards, both of whom were Sikh nationalists seeking retribution for the events at the temple.

Gandhi was cremated at the site now known as Shakti Sthal (transl. 'Place of strength'). The site is marked by a large monolithic rock of iron ore commemorating her as the "Iron Lady of India". Gandhi is remembered as one of the most powerful women in the world. Her supporters cite her leadership during victories over geopolitical rivals China and Pakistan, the Green Revolution, a growing economy in the early 1980s, and her anti-poverty campaign that led her to be known as Mother Indira among the country's poor and rural population. Critics note her cult of personality and authoritarian rule of India during the Emergency. In 1999, she was named "Woman of the Millennium" in an online poll organised by the BBC. In 2020, she was named by Time magazine among the 100 women who defined the past century as counterparts to the magazine's previous choices for Man of the Year.

Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar Biography

Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar (14 April 1891 – 6 December 1956) was an Indian jurist, economist, social reformer and politician who chaired the committee that drafted the Constitution of India based on the debates of the Constituent Assembly of India and the first draft of Sir Benegal Narsing Rau. Ambedkar served as Law and Justice minister in the first cabinet of Jawaharlal Nehru. He later renounced Hinduism and converted to Buddhism, inspiring the Dalit Buddhist movement.

After graduating from Elphinstone College, University of Bombay, Ambedkar studied economics at Columbia University and the London School of Economics, receiving doctorates in 1927 and 1923, respectively, and was among a handful of Indian students to have done so at either institution in the 1920s. During his time at Columbia University, Ambedkar came under the influence of John Dewey and his philosophy of pragmatism. He also trained in the law at Gray's Inn, London. In his early career, he was an economist, professor, and lawyer. His later life was marked by his political activities; he became involved in campaigning and negotiations for partition, publishing journals, advocating political rights and social freedom for Dalits, and contributing to the establishment of the state of India. In 1956, he converted to Buddhism, initiating mass conversions of Dalits.

In 1990, the Bharat Ratna, India's highest civilian award, was posthumously conferred on Ambedkar. The salutation Jai Bhim (lit. "Hail Bhim") is used by his followers to honour him. He is also referred to by the honorific Babasaheb, meaning "Respected Father".

Early life and education

Ambedkar was born on 14 April 1891 in the town and military cantonment of Mhow (now officially known as Dr Ambedkar Nagar, Madhya Pradesh). He was the 14th and last child of Ramji Maloji Sakpal, an army officer who held the rank of Subedar, and Bhimabai Sakpal, daughter of Laxman Murbadkar. His family was of Marathi background from the town of Ambadawe (Mandangad taluka) in Ratnagiri district of modern-day Maharashtra. Ambedkar's ancestors had long worked for the army of the British East India Company, and his father served in the British Indian Army at the Mhow cantonment.

Ambedkar was born into a Mahar (Dalit) caste, who were treated as untouchables and subjected to socio-economic discrimination. Although they attended school, Ambedkar and other untouchable children were segregated and given little attention or help by teachers. They were not allowed to sit inside the class. When they needed to drink water, someone from a higher caste had to pour that water from a height as they were not allowed to touch either the water or the vessel that contained it. This task was usually performed for the young Ambedkar by the school peon, and if the peon was not available then he had to go without water; he described the situation later in his writings as "No peon, No Water". He was required to sit on a gunny sack which he had to take home with him.

Ramji Sakpal retired in 1894 and the family moved to Satara two years later. Shortly after their move, Ambedkar's mother died. The children were cared for by their paternal aunt and lived in difficult circumstances. Three sons – Balaram, Anandrao and Bhimrao – and two daughters – Manjula and Tulasa – of the Ambedkars survived them. Of his brothers and sisters, only Ambedkar passed his examinations and went to high school. His original surname was Sakpal but his father registered his name as Ambadawekar in school, meaning he comes from his native village 'Ambadawe' in Ratnagiri district. His Marathi Brahmin teacher, Krishnaji Keshav Ambedkar, changed his surname from 'Ambadawekar' to his own surname 'Ambedkar' in school records.

Education

Education is the process of facilitating learning, or the acquisition of knowledge, skills, values, beliefs, and habits. Educational methods include storytelling, discussion, teaching, training, and directed research. Education frequently takes place under the guidance of educators, however learners may also educate themselves. Education can take place in formal or informal settings and any experience that has a formative effect on the way one thinks, feels, or acts may be considered educational. The methodology of teaching is called pedagogy.

Formal education is commonly divided formally into such stages as preschool or kindergarten, primary school, secondary school and then college, university, or apprenticeship.

A right to education has been recognized by some governments and the United Nations.In most regions, education is compulsory up to a certain age.Education began in prehistory, as adults trained the young in the knowledge and skills deemed necessary in their society. In pre-literate societies, this was achieved orally and through imitation. Story-telling passed knowledge, values, and skills from one generation to the next. As cultures began to extend their knowledge beyond skills that could be readily learned through imitation, formal education developed. Schools existed in Egypt at the time of the Middle Kingdom.

Matteo Ricci (left) and Xu Guangqi (right) in the Chinese edition of Euclid's Elements published in 1607

Plato founded the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in Europe. The city of Alexandria in Egypt, established in 330 BCE, became the successor to Athens as the intellectual cradle of Ancient Greece. There, the great Library of Alexandria was built in the 3rd century BCE. European civilizations suffered a collapse of literacy and organization following the fall of Rome in CE 476.

In China, Confucius (551–479 BCE), of the State of Lu, was the country's most influential ancient philosopher, whose educational outlook continues to influence the societies of China and neighbours like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. Confucius gathered disciples and searched in vain for a ruler who would adopt his ideals for good governance, but his Analects were written down by followers and have continued to influence education in East Asia into the modern era.