Education in India - India's educational status, Education system and Ancient Education System in India

India's educational status

Education in India is primarily managed by a government-run public education system, which is controlled at three levels: central, state, and local. Under various articles of the Indian Constitution and the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009, free and compulsory education is guaranteed as a fundamental right to children between the ages of 6 and 14. The ratio of government schools to private schools in India is approximately 10:3.

Education in India encompasses various levels and types of learning, such as early childhood education, primary education, secondary education, higher education, and vocational education. This varies significantly depending on factors such as location (urban or rural), gender, caste, religion, language, and disability.

Education in India faces numerous challenges, including lack of access, quality, and learning outcomes, high dropout rates, and poor job prospects. It is shaped by national and state-level policies and programs such as the National Education Policy 2020, the Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan, the Rastriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan, the Midday Meal Scheme, and the Beti bacha o Beti Padhao (Save the Girl Child). Numerous national and international stakeholders, including UNICEF, UNESCO, the World Bank, civil society organizations, academic institutions, and the private sector, contribute to the development of the education system.

Education in India is plagued by problems such as grade inflation, corruption, the issuance of fake certificates by unrecognized institutions, and a lack of job prospects for graduates. Half of graduates in India are considered unemployable.

This raises concerns about prioritizing Western perspectives over indigenous knowledge. It has also been argued that this system emphasizes rote learning and external perspectives.

In contrast, countries such as Germany, known for its engineering expertise, France, renowned for its aviation advancements, Japan, a global leader in technology, and China, an emerging hub of high-tech innovation, primarily offer education in their respective mother tongues. However, India continues to use English as the primary medium of instruction in higher education and professional domains.

Education system

Until 1976, under the Indian Constitution, each state was responsible for the schools under its jurisdiction; states had full authority (unless there was a conflict with the federal government) to formulate and implement education policies. Following the passage of the 42nd Amendment to the Constitution of India in 1976, education fell under the Concurrent List, allowing the federal government (also known as the central government) to recommend education policies and programs, even though state governments continued to exercise extensive autonomy in implementing these programs. In a large country like India, with 28 states and eight union territories, this has led to significant differences between state policies, plans, programs, and initiatives related to school education. From time to time, national policy frameworks are created to guide states in formulating state-level programs and policies. State governments and local government bodies manage most primary and upper primary schools. 16.86% of government schools were under private management (excluding unaided schools, schools established under the Education Guarantee Scheme, and other learning centers). One-third of privately managed schools are aided and two-thirds are unaided. Enrollment in grades 1-8 is shared between government and privately managed schools in a ratio of 73:27. However, this ratio is higher in rural areas (80:20) and much lower in urban areas (36:66). At the school level, data on enrollment, infrastructure, and teacher availability is collected through the Unified District Information System for Education (UDISE+).

In the 2011 census, approximately 73% of the population was reported to be literate, of which 81% were males and 65% were females. The National Statistical Commission surveyed literacy at 77.7% in 2017-18, with 84.7% for men and 70.3% for women. This compares to 1981, when the rates were 41%, 53%, and 29%. In 1951, the rates were 18%, 27%, and 9%. India's improved education system is often cited as one of the main contributors to its economic growth. Much of the progress, especially in higher education and scientific research, has been attributed to various government institutions. Although enrolment in higher education has steadily increased over the last ten years, with the Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) reaching 26.3% in 2019, there is still a long way to go to reach tertiary education enrolment levels in developed countries, a challenge that will need to be overcome to continue benefiting from the demographic dividend from India's relatively young population.

The demand for private schools has been increasing over the past few years. While there is no consensus yet on the primary reasons for this growth in private schooling, some authors have attributed it to the increased demand for English-medium education, dissatisfaction with the quality of public schools, the increased affordability of private schools, and the lack of preferred fields in government schools. Following the adoption of the Right to Education (RTE) Act in 2009, private schools were required to obtain government recognition. A private school will be eligible for government recognition if it meets certain conditions.

At the primary and secondary levels, India has a large private school system alongside government schools, with 29% of students in the age group of 6 to 14 years receiving private education. Some post-secondary technical schools are also private. The private education market in India had revenues of US$450 million in 2008, but it is estimated to be a US$40 billion market.

According to the Annual Status of Education Report (ASER) 2012, 96.5% of all rural children aged 6-14 were enrolled in school. This trend of higher enrollment has continued since the mid-2000s. According to the ASER report, between 2007 and 2014, India maintained an average school enrollment rate of 95% for children aged 6-14. Consequently, the number of students aged 6-14 not enrolled in school declined to 2.8% in the academic year 2018 (ASER 2018). Another 2013 report stated that 229 million students were enrolled in classes I to XII in India's various recognized urban and rural schools, showing a steady increase, including a 19% increase in enrollment among girls since 2002. While India is moving towards universal enrollment, concerns remain about the quality of education, especially in government schools. While over 95% of children attend primary school, only 40% of Indian adolescents attend secondary school (grades 9–12). Since 2000, the World Bank has provided over $2 billion to support India's efforts to improve educational infrastructure and learning outcomes. Teacher absenteeism remains a major challenge, with studies showing that approximately 25% of teachers may be absent on any given day. Indian states have introduced testing and education assessment systems to identify and improve such schools. The Human Rights Measurement Initiative estimates that India is achieving only 79.0% of the required level of education for its income level.

Although private schools exist in India, they are highly regulated in terms of what they can teach, how they can operate (they must be non-profit to operate a recognized educational institution), and all other aspects of their operations. Therefore, the distinction between government schools and private schools can be misleading. However, a report by Geeta Gandhi Kingdom, titled: The Decline of Public Schools and the Growth of Private Schools in India, states that to formulate sensible education policy, it is important to consider the different changing trends in the size of the private and public schooling sectors in India. Ignoring these trends risks poor policy and legislation, which negatively impacts children's education.

In January 2019, India had over 900 universities and 40,000 colleges. In India's higher education system, a significant number of seats are reserved for historically disadvantaged Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and Other Backward Classes (OBCs) under the Affirmative Action Policy. In universities, colleges, and other similar central government institutions, a maximum of 50% reservation applies to these backward groups, though this may vary at the state level. In 2014, Maharashtra had 73% reservation, the highest percentage of reservation in India.

Ancient Education System in India

In India, early education began under the guidance of a 'guru' or teacher, following an initiation ceremony. Education was imparted through the 'Gurukul' system, a process in which the relationship between the guru and the 'shishya' (student) was paramount. Taxila is an example of an ancient institution of higher learning in India, dating back perhaps to the 8th century BCE. However, it is debatable whether it could be considered a university by modern standards; the resident teachers likely lacked formal affiliation with any specific college, and—unlike the later Nalanda University in eastern India—Taxila lacked dedicated lecture halls or purpose-built residential buildings. Nalanda represented the world's oldest university-based education system in the modern sense, and all subjects there were taught in the Pali language.

Alongside Buddhist monasteries, secular educational institutions were also established. These institutions imparted practical education, such as the study of medicine. Between 500 BCE and 400 CE, several urban centers of learning emerged rapidly. Prominent urban centers of learning included Nalanda (in present-day Bihar), Vikram Sheela, and Odanta puri. Knowledge was imparted systematically at these institutions, attracting numerous foreign students to study subjects such as Buddhist Pali literature, logic, and Pali grammar. One of the most renowned teachers associated with the establishment of the Mauryan Empire was the Brahmin teacher Chanakya.

Historically, Sramanas and Brahmana teachers imparted education through donations rather than charging fees or money from students or their guardians. Later, stupas and temples also became centers of learning; while religious instruction was essential, secular subjects were taught as well. Students were required to observe "Brahmacharya" (celibacy). The education provided within these groups was often linked to the professions of specific sections of society, encompassing fields such as arts, crafts, Ayurveda, and architecture.

Human disease - Concepts, Primary illness, Secondary illness, Terminal illness, Disease, Disorder

                                                                                   

A disease is a specific abnormal condition that adversely affects the structure or function of all or part of an organism and is not immediately caused by external injury. Diseases are often considered medical conditions associated with specific signs and symptoms. Diseases can be caused by external factors such as pathogens or internal problems. For example, internal problems with the immune system can lead to a variety of different illnesses, including immunodeficiency, hypersensitivity, allergies, and various forms of autoimmune disorders.

In humans, the term disease is often used to describe any condition that causes pain, discomfort, distress, social problems, or death to the affected individual, or to those in contact with that individual. In this broad sense, it sometimes includes injuries, disabilities, disorders, syndromes, infections, various symptoms, abnormal behaviors, and unusual changes in structure and function, while in other cases and for other purposes, these may be considered distinct categories. Diseases can affect people not only physically but also mentally, as suffering from and living with a disease can change a person's outlook on life.

Death due to disease is called death from natural causes. There are four main types of disease: infectious diseases, deficiency diseases, hereditary diseases, and physiological diseases. Diseases can also be classified in other ways, such as communicable and non-communicable diseases. The most fatal diseases in humans are ischemic heart disease (blockage of blood flow), followed by stroke and COPD (lung disease). In developed countries, the diseases that cause the most illness are neuropsychiatric conditions, such as depression and anxiety.

Pathology, the study of disease, includes the study of etiology, or causes.

Concept

In many cases, the terms disease, disorder, morbidity, sickness, and illness are used interchangeably; however, there are situations when certain terms are considered preferable.

Disease

The term disease broadly refers to any condition that disrupts the body's normal functioning. Therefore, diseases are associated with a malfunction of the body's normal homeostatic processes. Generally, the term is used specifically for infectious diseases, which are clinically evident illnesses caused by the presence of pathogenic microbial agents such as viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, multicellular organisms, and abnormal proteins called prions. Infections or colonization's that do not cause clinically evident disruptions to normal functioning, such as the presence of normal bacteria and yeast in the intestine, or passenger viruses, are not considered diseases. In contrast, an infection that is asymptomatic during its incubation period, but is expected to develop symptoms later, is generally considered a disease. Non-infectious diseases are all other diseases, including most cancers, heart disease, and genetic diseases.

Acquired Disease

An acquired disease is one that begins at some point in one's life; in contrast, a disease that is present from birth is called a congenital disease. Acquired may sound like it means "contagious," but it simply means acquired sometime after birth. It may also sound like it could mean a secondary disease, but an acquired disease can also be a primary disease.

Acute Illness

An acute illness is one that lasts for a short period of time (acute); this term can sometimes also mean a severe illness.

Chronic Condition or Chronic Disease

A chronic illness is one that persists over time, often for at least six months, but can also include illnesses that are expected to last a lifetime.

Congenital Disorder or Congenital Disease

A congenital disorder is one that is present at birth. It is often a genetic disease or disorder and may be inherited. It may also be the result of an infection transmitted directly from the mother, such as HIV/AIDS.

Genetic Disease

A genetic disorder or disease is caused by one or more genetic mutations. It is often inherited, but some mutations are random and new. Hereditary or Inherited Disease

A hereditary disease is a type of genetic disease caused by genetic mutations that are inherited (and can run in families).

Iatrogenic Disease

An iatrogenic disease or condition is one that results from medical intervention, whether as a side effect of treatment or an unintentional consequence.

Idiopathic Disease

The cause or source of an idiopathic disease is unknown. As medical science has advanced, many diseases with a completely unknown cause have had some aspects of their origin understood and therefore lost their idiopathic status. For example, when germs were discovered, it was discovered that they were caused by infections, but specific germs and diseases were not linked. In another example, it is known that autoimmunity causes some forms of diabetes mellitus type 1, although the specific molecular pathways through which this works are still not understood. It is also common to find that certain factors are associated with certain diseases; however, association does not necessarily imply causation. For example, a third factor may cause both the disease and its associated event.

Incurable disease

A disease that cannot be cured. Terminal illnesses are not necessarily life-threatening, and sometimes the symptoms can be treated so that the disease has little or no impact on quality of life.

Primary Illness

A primary illness is an illness caused by the underlying cause of the disease, while a secondary illness is a sequela or complication resulting from the primary illness. For example, the common cold is a primary illness, while rhinitis could be a potential secondary illness or sequela. The doctor must determine which primary illness, cold, or bacterial infection is causing the patient's secondary rhinitis in order to prescribe antibiotics.

Secondary Illness

A secondary illness is a sequela or complication of a previous, underlying illness, which is called the primary illness or simply the root cause. For example, a bacterial infection can be primary, in which a healthy person comes into contact with the bacteria and becomes infected, or it can be secondary to a primary cause, which prepares the body for infection. For example, a primary viral infection that weakens the immune system can lead to a secondary bacterial infection. Similarly, a primary burn that creates an open wound can become an entry point for bacteria, leading to a secondary bacterial infection.

Terminal illness

An incurable disease is one that ultimately leads to death. AIDS was once an incurable disease; although there is no definitive cure, it can be kept under control for a long time through the use of medication.

Disease

The terms 'illness' and 'sickness' are often used interchangeably with 'disease'; however, 'illness' is sometimes used specifically to describe a patient's personal and subjective experience of their condition. In this model, a person may have a 'disease' without experiencing 'illness' (i.e., a clearly identifiable medical condition that presents no symptoms, such as a sub-clinical infection or a visible physical abnormality that causes the individual no distress or discomfort); conversely, a person may experience 'illness' without having a 'disease' (such as when a perfectly healthy individual interprets a common experience or life situation as a medical problem—for instance, mistaking the feeling of malaise caused by embarrassment for an actual illness). Symptoms of 'illness' are often not the direct result of an infection itself, but rather a set of evolved bodily responses—known as 'sickness behavior'—that aid in eliminating the infection and facilitating recovery. Such symptoms of 'illness' can include lethargy, depression, loss of appetite, drowsiness, hyperalgesia (heightened sensitivity to pain), and an inability to concentrate.

Disorder

A 'disorder' is a type of functional disturbance or problem that may or may not present with specific symptoms. Medical disorders can be classified into various categories, such as mental, physical, genetic, emotional, behavioral, and functional disorders. The term 'disorder' is often considered more neutral and less stigmatizing than terms like 'disease' or 'illness,' making it preferable in certain contexts. In the field of mental health, the term 'mental disorder' is used to understand the complex interplay of biological, social, and psychological factors in psychiatric conditions; however, the term 'disorder' is also used in other areas of medical science—particularly to identify physical disorders not caused by infectious organisms, such as metabolic disorders. 

World War I - the beginning of the destruction of the world, Background of the war, Conflict in the Balkans

 

The First World War, or the First World War (July 28, 1914 – November 11, 1918), also known as the Great War, was a global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers. The main areas of conflict included Europe and the Middle East, as well as parts of Africa and the Asia-Pacific. The conflict saw significant developments in weapons such as tanks, aircraft, artillery, machine guns, and chemical weapons. One of the bloodiest conflicts in history, it resulted in approximately 30 million military casualties and 8 million civilian deaths from war-related causes and genocide. The movement of large numbers of people was a major factor in the deadly Spanish flu pandemic.

The causes of World War I included the rise of the German Empire and the decline of the Ottoman Empire, which disrupted the long-standing balance of power in Europe, exacerbated imperial rivalries, and triggered an arms race between the major powers. Rising tensions in the Balkans reached a peak on June 28, 1914, when Bosnian Serb Gavrilo Princip assassinated Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne. Austria-Hungary blamed Serbia and declared war on July 28. After Russia came to Serbia's defense, Germany declared war on Russia and France, who had formed an alliance. The United Kingdom joined the war after Germany invaded Belgium, and the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers in November. Germany's strategy in 1914 was to quickly defeat France and then send its army eastward. However, its advance was halted in September, and by the end of the year, the Western Front consisted of a nearly continuous line of trenches from the English Channel to Switzerland. The Eastern Front was more fortified, but despite costly offensives, neither side achieved significant gains. Italy, Bulgaria, Romania, Greece and other countries joined the war from 1915 onwards.

Major battles such as Verdun, the Somme, and Passchendaele failed to break the logjam on the Western Front. In April 1917, after Germany resumed unrestrained submarine warfare against Atlantic shipping, the United States joined the Allies. Later that year, the Bolsheviks seized power in Russia in the October Revolution; Soviet Russia signed an armistice with the Central Powers in December, followed by a separate peace treaty in March 1918. That month, Germany launched a Spring Offensive in the west, which, despite initial successes, exhausted and demoralized the German army. The Allied Hundred Days Offensive, which began in August 1918, led to the collapse of the German front line. Following the Vardar Offensive, Bulgaria signed an armistice in late September. By early November, the Allies had signed armistices with the Ottomans and Austria-Hungary, leaving Germany isolated. Facing revolution at home, Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated on November 9, and the war ended with the Armistice of November 11, 1918.

The Paris Peace Conference of 1919-1920 imposed compromises on the defeated powers. Under the Treaty of Versailles, Germany lost considerable territory, was stripped of its weapons, and was required to pay substantial war reparations to the Allies. The collapse of the Russian, German, Austro-Hungarian, and Ottoman empires created new national boundaries and led to the creation of newly independent countries such as Poland, Finland, the Baltic countries, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia. The League of Nations was established to maintain world peace, but its failure to manage the instability of the interwar period contributed to the outbreak of World War II in 1939.

Before World War II, the events of 1914–1918 were commonly referred to as the Great War or simply the World War. In August 1914, The Independent said of the conflict, "This is the Great War. It deserves its own name." Ten years after its end, many expected it to be "the war to end all wars" because of its immense destruction and high death toll. The term First World War was first used in September 1914, when German biologist and philosopher Ernst Haeckel wrote that the ongoing "European War" would become "the first world war in the full sense of the word."

Background of the war

Political and Military Alliances

For most of the 19th century, the major European powers maintained a tenuous balance of power known as the Concert of Europe. After 1848, this was challenged by Britain's descent into splendid isolation, the decline of the Ottoman Empire, New Imperialism, and the rise of Prussia under Otto von Bismarck. Victory in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871 allowed Bismarck to consolidate a German Empire. After 1871, French policy aimed to avenge this defeat and expand France's colonial empire.

In 1873, Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors, comprising Austria-Hungary, Russia, and Germany. After the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878, the League was dissolved due to Austrian concerns about growing Russian influence in the Balkans, an area they considered of vital strategic interest. Germany and Austria-Hungary formed the Dual Alliance in 1879, which became the Triple Alliance when Italy joined in 1882. For Bismarck, the purpose of these agreements was to isolate France so that the three empires could resolve any disputes among themselves. In 1887, Bismarck created the Reinsurance Treaty, a secret agreement between Germany and Russia that would remain neutral if either France or Austria-Hungary were attacked.

                                                                                 

      

For Bismarck, peace with Russia was the foundation of German foreign policy, but in 1890, Wilhelm II forced him to retire. The latter was persuaded by his new Chancellor, Leo von Caprivi, not to renew the Reinsurance Treaty. This led France to agree to the Franco-Russian Alliance in 1894, followed by the Entente Cordiale with Britain in 1904. The Triple Entente was completed by the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907. Although these were not formal alliances, by resolving long-standing colonial disputes in Asia and Africa, British support for either France or Russia in any future conflict became a possibility. This was further exacerbated by British and Russian support for France against Germany during the Agadir Crisis of 1911.

Germany's economic and industrial power continued to grow rapidly after 1871. With the support of Wilhelm II, Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz used this growth to build an Imperial German Navy that could rival the British Royal Navy. This policy was based on the work of US naval author Alfred Thayer Mahan, who argued that a blue-water navy was essential to projecting power worldwide; Tirpitz had his books translated into German, while Wilhelm made them mandatory reading for his advisors and senior military staff.

Bismarck opposed any attempt to compete with the Royal Navy, believing that Britain would not interfere in Europe as long as its maritime dominance was secure. His removal in 1890 led to a change in policy and an arms race between the Anglo-German navies. Despite the enormous sums spent by Tirpitz, the launch of HMS Dreadnought in 1906 rendered every existing battleship obsolete, giving the British a technological advantage they never relinquished. Ultimately, Germany invested enormous resources in building a navy large enough to trouble Britain, but could not defeat it. In 1911, Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg conceded defeat, leading to the Rüstungswende, or 'turning point on armaments,' when he shifted spending from the navy to the army.

This decision was driven by German concerns about the speed of Russia's recovery following its defeat in the Russo-Japanese War and the subsequent Russian Revolution of 1905. Economic reforms led to a significant expansion of railway and transportation infrastructure after 1908, especially along its western border. Since Germany and Austria-Hungary relied on rapid mobilization to compensate for their numerical weakness compared to Russia, the threat posed by closing this gap was more important than confronting the Royal Navy. In 1913, Germany increased its standing army by 170,000 men, followed by France's extension of compulsory military service from two to three years, prompting similar measures from the Balkan countries, Italy, the Ottoman Empire, and Austria-Hungary. Accurate figures are difficult to calculate due to differences in expenditure categories, which often exclude civilian infrastructure projects, such as railways, which had logistical significance and military applications. However, from 1908 to 1913, military expenditures for the six major European powers actually increased by more than 50%.

Conflict in the Balkans

In the years leading up to 1914, the Balkan region faced numerous crises as other powers sought to capitalize on the decline of the Ottoman Empire. Pan-Slavic and Orthodox Russia viewed itself as the protector of Serbia and other Slavic nations, yet it also desired that the strategically vital Bosphorus Strait remain under the control of a weak Ottoman government rather than an ambitious Slavic power like Bulgaria. Russia had its sights set on northeastern Anatolia, while the claims of its Balkan allies frequently clashed with one another. These conflicting interests divided Russian policymakers and further exacerbated instability in the region.

Austrian leaders believed that the Balkan region was essential for the survival of their empire and viewed Serbian expansion as a direct threat. The Bosnian Crisis of 1908–1909 began when Austria annexed the former Ottoman territories of Bosnia and Herzegovina—which it had occupied since 1878—into its empire. Although European powers condemned this unilateral move—which coincided with Bulgaria's declaration of independence from the Ottoman Empire—they ultimately accepted it, as no consensus could be reached on how to resolve the situation. Some historians view this as a critical escalation of tensions that eliminated any possibility of cooperation between Austria and Russia in the Balkans and also damaged diplomatic relations with Serbia and Italy.

Tensions escalated after the Ottoman Empire's weakness was exposed during the Italo-Turkish War (1911–1912) and the formation of the 'Balkan League'—an alliance comprising Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro, and Greece. During the First Balkan War (1912–1913), the League rapidly seized most of the Ottoman Empire's territories in the Balkans, taking outside observers by surprise. Austria began partial military mobilization after Serbia occupied Adriatic ports; this process commenced on November 21, 1912, and included troops stationed along the Russian border in Galicia. In response, the Russian government decided against mobilizing its own forces, as it did not wish to trigger a war.

In 1913, the Great Powers attempted to reassert their control through the Treaty of London. This treaty established an independent Albania and expanded the territories of Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro, and Greece. However, disputes among the victors triggered the Second Balkan War—a conflict lasting 33 days—when Bulgaria attacked Serbia and Greece on June 16, 1913; Bulgaria was defeated and forced to cede most of Macedonia to Serbia and Greece, and Southern Dobruja to Romania. Consequently, even countries like Serbia and Greece, which had benefited from the Balkan Wars, felt they had not received their "just due." Meanwhile, it became clear to Austria just how indifferent other powers, including Germany, were to its concerns. This mix of resentment, nationalism, and insecurity helps explain why the Balkans came to be known as the "powder keg of Europe" in the period leading up to 1914.

The East India Company in India - History of the East India Company, Formation of the company

 

The East India Company was founded in 1600 and dissolved in 1874. It was established to trade in the Indian Ocean region, initially with the East Indies (the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia) and later with East Asia. The company eventually established control over large parts of the Indian subcontinent and Hong Kong. At its peak, the company was, in many ways, the largest corporation in the world and had its own armed forces, including three Presidency armies with approximately 260,000 soldiers.

Initially named "The Governor and Company of Merchants of London Trading into the East Indies," the company was responsible for approximately half of the world's trade in the mid-1700s and early 1800s, particularly in goods such as cotton, silk, indigo, sugar, salt, spices, ginger, tea, precious stones, and later, opium. The company also initiated British rule in the Indian subcontinent.

Ultimately, the company ruled over large parts of the Indian subcontinent, wielding military power and assuming administrative responsibilities. The company's territory in the region gradually expanded after the Battle of Plassey in 1757, and by 1858, most of what is now India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh was either directly under the company's control or a princely state closely allied to it by treaty. Following the Indian Rebellion of 1857, under the Government of India Act of 1858, the British government assumed direct control over what is now Bangladesh, Pakistan, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and India, thus establishing the British Indian Empire.

Later, despite increasing government intervention, the company faced financial difficulties. Under the provisions of the East India Stock Dividend Redemption Act passed a year earlier, the company was dissolved in 1874, as by then the Government of India Act had rendered it an unnecessary, powerless, and outdated institution. The British government took over the administrative responsibilities of the company, and its military units were incorporated into the British army.

History

Beginnings

In 1577, Francis Drake set sail from England on an expedition to plunder Spanish settlements in South America in search of gold and silver. Sailing on the ship named the Golden Hind, he completed this task and then crossed the Pacific Ocean in 1579, a route then known only to the Spanish and Portuguese. Drake eventually reached the East Indies, arriving near the Moluccas, known as the Spice Islands, and met with Sultan Babullah. In exchange for linen, gold, and silver, the English obtained various types of valuable spices, including cloves and nutmeg. Drake returned to England in 1580 and became a national hero; his voyage brought considerable wealth to the English treasury and yielded investors a return of approximately 5,000 percent.

                                                                                 

      

Immediately following the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588, the seizure of Spanish and Portuguese ships and their cargo gave English adventurers the opportunity to travel the world in search of riches. London merchants requested permission from Elizabeth I to sail into the Indian Ocean. Their aim was to break the Spanish and Portuguese monopoly on the Far Eastern trade. Elizabeth granted permission, and in 1591, James Lancaster and two other ships, financed by the Levant Company, sailed on the Bonaventure from the Cape of Good Hope to the Arabian Sea, thus becoming the first English expedition to reach India.

The greatest prize for promoting English trade was the capture of the large Portuguese carrack ship, Madre de Deus, by Walter Raleigh and the Earl of Cumberland at the Battle of Flores on August 13, 1592. When it arrived in Dartmouth, it was the largest ship ever seen in England, and it carried chests filled with precious stones, pearls, gold, silver coins, ambergris, textiles, carpets, black pepper, cloves, cinnamon, nutmeg, benzoin (a highly fragrant balsamic resin used in perfumes and medicines), red dye, cochineal, and ivory. The ship's logbook was also invaluable, containing important information about trade routes to China, India, and Japan. In 1596, three more English ships set sail for the East, but all were lost at sea. However, a year later, Ralph Fitch arrived; he was an adventurous trader who, along with his companions, had undertaken an amazing nine-year journey through Mesopotamia, the Persian Gulf, the Indian Ocean, India, and Southeast Asia. Fitch was consulted on matters relating to India and provided Lancaster with even more valuable information.

Formation of the company

In 1599, a group of prominent merchants and explorers met under a royal charter to discuss potential trade ventures in the East Indies. This group included Stephen Soame, the then Lord Mayor of London; Thomas Smith, an influential London politician and administrator; Richard Hakluyt, a writer and proponent of English colonization in the Americas; and several other mariners who had served with Drake and Raleigh.

On September 22, the group announced its intention to launch an expedition to the East Indies (seeking divine favor) and decided to invest £30,133 (equivalent to over £4,000,000 today) themselves. Two days later, the "Adventurers" reconvened and resolved to secure the Queen's support for the project. Although their initial attempt was not entirely successful, they sought the Queen's informal approval to proceed. They purchased ships for the venture and increased their investment to £68,373.

They met again a year later, on December 31, 1600, and this time they succeeded; the Queen responded favorably to the petition submitted by George, Earl of Cumberland, and 218 others. This group included James Lancaster, Sir John Hart, Sir John Spencer (both of whom had served as Lord Mayor of London), the adventurer Edward Michelborne, the nobleman William Cavendish, and various other aldermen and citizens. She granted their company a charter under the name 'Governor and Company of Merchants of London Trading into the East Indies.' This charter conferred upon the company a monopoly on English trade for fifteen years with all countries situated east of the Cape of Good Hope and west of the Straits of Magellan. Any merchant trading there without a license from the company faced the confiscation of their ships and goods (with the proceeds shared equally between the Crown and the company) and could also be imprisoned at the "royal pleasure."

Under the charter, Thomas Smith was appointed the company's first Governor[30]: 3  along with 24 directors (including James Lancaster)[30]: 4 —members of the "Committee"—who constituted the 'Court of Directors'. They reported to the 'Court of Proprietors', by whom they were appointed. Ten committees reported to the 'Court of Directors'. Initially, operations were conducted from the 'Nag's Head Inn' opposite St Botolph's Church in Bishopsgate, and were later moved to 'East India House' on Leadenhall Street.

Indian Home Rule movement - Objectives of the Home Rule Movement, Background and Progress of the Movement

 

The Home Rule Movement was the All India Home Rule League, a political organization founded by Bal Gangadhar Tilak in 1916. Its objective was to promote the national demand for self-rule in India under the banner of "Home Rule." Its goal was to achieve dominion status for India within the British Empire. At that time, Australia, Canada, South Africa, New Zealand, and Newfoundland were already dominions within the British Empire.

When World War I began, the liberal faction of the Indian National Congress decided to support Britain. They believed that if India supported Britain, Britain would grant India independence after the war. However, the Indian National Congress soon realized that Britain would never do so, and Indian leaders became dissatisfied and began exploring other avenues. This discontent led to the emergence of the Home Rule Movement. Between 1915 and 1916, two Home Rule Leagues were established: the Pune Home Rule League founded by Bal Gangadhar Tilak and the Madras Home Rule League founded by Annie Besant. The Home Rule League functioned as a subsidiary organization of the Indian National Congress. The movement aimed to achieve self-rule, but it did not advocate the use of violence.

During the Home Rule Movement, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Annie Besant designed a flag in 1917. This flag consisted of five red and four green horizontal stripes, and also featured seven stars. However, this flag did not gain widespread popularity.

Introduction

Mrs. Annie Besant was from Ireland. She was a leader of the Theosophical Society in India. She was deeply influenced by Indian civilization and culture. Therefore, she left Ireland and settled in India, eventually coming to consider India her home. At that time in Ireland, the Irish Home Rule League had been established under the leadership of Irish leader Redmond. The objective of this league was to achieve self-government for Ireland through constitutional and peaceful means. In 1913, when Annie Besant went to England, the Irish Home Rule League asked her to launch a Home Rule movement for independence in India. Mrs. Annie Besant wanted India to have the same level of self-government as other British colonies, meaning she wanted India to achieve dominion status. With this objective in mind, upon returning to India, she joined the Congress Party and, by uniting both moderate and radical leaders, launched the Home Rule movement.

Objectives of the Home Rule Movement

The Home Rule Movement was a constitutional movement. The main objectives of this movement were as follows:

(1) Its main objective was to achieve self-government in India. Annie Besant wanted India to have the same degree of self-government as other colonies in the British Empire. Explaining the objective of the Home Rule Movement, Annie Besant wrote in the first issue of her weekly journal 'Commonweal': “By political reform we mean the establishment of self-government from village panchayats to district boards and municipalities, provincial assemblies and a national parliament. This national parliament would have the same powers as the legislatures of self-governing colonies. Whatever name it may be given, and when representatives of self-governing states are admitted to the British Parliament, India should also have representatives in that Parliament.”

(2) The objective of this movement was neither to drive the British out of India nor to hamper their war efforts. On the contrary, they argued that a self-governing India would be more helpful to the British during the war. Indians were supporting the British in the war because they hoped that the British would grant them self-government after the war. Annie Besant believed that if the British government granted self-government during the war, Indians would support the British war efforts with greater enthusiasm and more resources. Annie Besant believed that a subjugated India could not be as helpful to the British Empire as a free India. Thus, the objective of this movement was indirectly to support Britain in the war.

                                                                                 

          

(3) Another objective of the Home Rule Movement was to prevent Indian politics from taking a radical turn. Annie Besant carefully studied the political trends in India and concluded that if a peaceful and constitutional movement was not started, revolutionary and terrorist elements would dominate Indian politics. To achieve this objective, she considered starting a peaceful and constitutional movement as the best way. According to Dr. Zakaria, “Her plan was to keep the radical nationalists separate from the revolutionaries. She wanted to pacify the Indians by giving them self-government within the British Empire.” To achieve this objective, she launched the Home Rule Movement with the aim of reducing the influence of revolutionaries in Indian politics.

(4) Indian politics had become stagnant during the war, and the national movement had stalled due to a lack of active programs and effective leadership. Therefore, it was essential to awaken the Indian people from their lethargy. To achieve this objective, Annie Besant launched the Home Rule Movement. Annie Besant stated, "I am an 'agitator' for India; my work is to awaken the sleeping Indians, so that they may rise and work for their country." The Home Rule Movement differed from the earlier liberal movement. It was not merely a demand for self-rule for India, but rather a demand for a fundamental right—that self-rule was the birthright of the Indians. Tilak had said, "Freedom is my birthright, and I shall have it." Annie Besant asserted that Home Rule was India's right, and it was absurd to claim that it should be granted as a reward for loyalty. As a nation, India was demanding its rightful place within the British Empire. India had made this demand before the war, would make it during the war, and would continue to make it after the war. But this right was being demanded not as a reward, but as a birthright; there should be no misunderstanding about this.

Background, Commencement, and Progress of the Movement

The Indian Home Rule Movement began during the First World War. The Government of India Act of 1909 had failed to meet the demands of Indian nationalist leaders. However, the nationalist response to British policies remained subdued due to the split within the Congress and the absence of leaders like Tilak (who had been imprisoned in Mandalay Jail). By 1915, several factors laid the groundwork for a new phase of the nationalist movement. The growing influence of the British activist Annie Besant (of Irish origin and a staunch supporter of the Irish Home Rule Movement), Tilak's return from exile, and the rising demand to resolve internal differences within the Congress stirred the political atmosphere in India. The Ghadar Mutiny and the subsequent harsh crackdown created an environment of resentment against British colonial rule. Wartime policies, such as the Defence of India Act of 1915 (viewed as a repressive measure), also contributed to the rise of the Indian Home Rule Movement.

Bal Gangadhar Tilak was released from prison on June 16, 1914, after completing his six-year sentence. He had spent most of his imprisonment in Mandalay (Burma). Upon returning to India, he found that the country had undergone significant changes. Arvind Ghosh, the revolutionary leader of the Swadeshi movement, had renounced worldly life and was residing in Pondicherry. Lala Lajpat Rai was in America. The Indian National Congress was still reeling from the shock of the Surat split, the repressive actions of the British against revolutionaries, and the disillusionment of the moderate nationalists following the constitutional reforms of 1909.

Tilak believed that the first step should be to bring the extremists back into the Congress. He was convinced that the Indian National Congress had become synonymous with the Indian national movement, and that no national movement could succeed without its support. To win over the moderates, gain their trust, and prevent future repressive actions by the British government, he stated, "I openly declare that we want the same kind of administrative reforms in India as the nationalists in Ireland are demanding. We have no intention of ending British rule. I have no hesitation in saying that the violent incidents that occurred in various parts of India are not only against my ideology, but they have also slowed down our political progress." He reiterated his loyalty to the British government and urged the Indian people to support the British government during this crisis.

Now, all the leaders of the moderate faction felt that what they had done in Surat in 1907 was wrong. They were also dissatisfied with the Congress's inactivity. Tilak's appeal influenced them. Furthermore, Annie Besant was constantly pressuring them to revive the nationalist political movement in the country. Annie Besant had recently joined the Congress. In 1914, she was 66 years old. Her political career began in England, where she was involved in promoting free thought, socialism, Fabianism, and Theosophy. In 1893, she came to India with the aim of working for the Theosophical Society. She established her headquarters in Adyar, a suburb of Madras, and began propagating Theosophy in 1907.  Soon, she gained considerable support, particularly from educated people in communities that had not yet experienced a cultural renaissance. In 1914, Annie Besant decided to broaden the scope of her activities and planned to launch a movement for self-rule in India, modeled after the Irish Home Rule League. She felt that this required the support of the Congress and the cooperation of the extremist faction. To gain the support of the extremists, she felt it was necessary to bring them into the Congress. Annie Besant tried to persuade the moderate leaders of the Congress to allow Tilak and his extremist associates to join the organization. However, the 1914 Congress session thwarted her efforts. Ferozshah Mehta and his supporters in Bombay, along with the moderate leaders from Bengal, succeeded in excluding the extremists. Thereafter, Tilak and Annie Besant decided to pursue their political movement independently, while simultaneously exerting pressure on the Congress to readmit the extremists.

Early childhood education - Theories of Child Development, Froebel's Play Theory and Reggio Emilia Approach

 

Early Childhood Education (ECE), also known as nursery education, is a branch of education theory that deals with the education of children (both formally and informally) from birth to the age of eight. Traditionally, this corresponds to the third grade. Early Childhood Education is considered a crucial period in a child's development.

Early Childhood Education emerged as a field of study during the Enlightenment, particularly in European countries with high literacy rates. It continued to grow in the nineteenth century as universal primary education became the norm in the Western world. In recent years, early childhood education has become a common public policy issue, as municipal, state, and federal lawmakers debate funding for preschool and pre-K. Governing bodies are also debating the central focus of early childhood education, focusing on developmentally appropriate play versus a robust academic preparation curriculum in reading, writing, and math. The global priority given to early childhood education is further emphasized by the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 4. However, by 2023, "only 4 in 10 children aged 3 and 4 worldwide receive early childhood education." Furthermore, participation levels vary greatly across regions. "In Latin America and the Caribbean, approximately 2 in 3 children receive ECE, while in South Asia, approximately half of children and in sub-Saharan Africa, only 1 in 4 children receive ECE." Following the Convention on the Rights of the Child in the 1990s, all Latin American countries enacted laws in accordance with the provisions of this international convention, and the state assumed responsibility for the right to education for the youngest children.

ECE is also a professional designation obtained through post-secondary education programs. For example, in Ontario, Canada, the ECE (Early Childhood Educator) and RECE (Registered Early Childhood Educator) designations can only be used by registered members of the College of Early Childhood Educators, which is composed of accredited child care professionals and is responsible for the College's Standards of Practice.

Research shows that early childhood education has significant positive short-term and long-term effects on the children who attend it, and the costs are far outweighed by the benefits education programs bring to society.

According to the OECD, investing in high-quality early childhood education and care (ECEC) is a cost-effective way to significantly improve children's cognitive, social, and emotional development. Skills learned at an early age provide a foundation for later learning and maximize the impact of subsequent educational investments.

Theories of Child Development

The developmental interaction approach is based on the theories of Jean Piaget, Erik Erikson, John Dewey, and Lucy Sprague Mitchell. This approach focuses on learning through discovery. Jean-Jacques Rousseau suggested that teachers should take advantage of each child's preferences to ensure that each child receives the information most important for their personal and individual development. The five developmental domains of childhood development include:

                                                                                   

   

Physical: the way in which a child develops biological and physical functions, including eyesight and motor skills

Social: the way in which a child interacts with others Children develop an understanding of their responsibilities and rights as members of families and communities, as well as an ability to relate to and work with others.

Emotional: The way a child forms emotional connections and develops self-confidence. Emotional connections develop when children connect with other people and share feelings.

Language: The way a child communicates, including how they express their feelings and emotions to others and themselves. At 3 months of age, children make different sounds for different needs. By 6 months of age, they can recognize and imitate the basic sounds of spoken language. In the first 3 years, children need exposure to communication with others to learn language. "Normal" language development is measured by the rate of vocabulary acquisition.

Cognitive skills: The way a child organizes information. Cognitive skills include problem-solving, creativity, imagination, and memory. These reflect the way children understand the world. Piaget believed that children show major differences in their thinking patterns as they move through stages of cognitive development: the sensorimotor period, the pre-operational period, and the operational period.

To meet those developmental domains, a child has certain needs that must be met for learning to occur. Maslow's hierarchy of needs shows different levels of needs that must be met; the chart to the right illustrates these needs.

Froebel's Play Theory

Friedrich Froebel was a German educator who believed that children learn through play. He famously stated, "Play is the highest expression of human development in childhood, for it alone is the free expression of what is in a child's soul." Froebel believed that teachers should act as facilitators and sources of support for students during play, rather than as authority figures who dictate actions or enforce discipline. He created educational, open-ended toys—which he termed "Gifts" and "Occupations"—to foster self-expression and a sense of initiative in children.

Reggio Emilia Approach

Reggio Emilia is an educational approach that originated in the city of Reggio Emilia in northern Italy shortly after World War II. It was developed under the guidance of educator Loris Malaguzzi, who believed that children are capable, curious, and full of potential. The core idea of ​​the Reggio Emilia approach is that children learn best in an environment based on relationships, where they learn through their own initiative and experiences. Young children are encouraged to explore the world around them and express themselves. This expression is not limited to writing, speaking, or gestures; it can also be symbolic, metaphorical, imaginative, logical, and relational. In the Reggio Emilia approach, teachers are viewed as 'co-learners' and 'collaborators'; rather than simply instructing the children, they guide them. Furthermore, documenting children's thinking and learning processes is a crucial way to understand how they learn.