Ancient indian culture - Prehistoric Period ( stone Age ), Bronze Age ( Indus Valley Civilization )

 

Physically modern humans first arrived on the Indian subcontinent between 73,000 and 55,000 years ago. The oldest known human remains in South Asia date back 30,000 years. Sedentary life in South Asia began around 7000 BCE; by 4500 BCE, settled life had spread and gradually evolved into the Indus Valley Civilization. This was one of the three earliest cradles of Old World civilization, flourishing between 2500 BCE and 1900 BCE in what is today Pakistan and northwestern India. In the early second millennium BCE, due to persistent droughts, the population of the Indus Valley dispersed from large urban centers into villages. Between approximately 1800 and 1500 BCE, Indo-Aryan tribes arrived from Central Asia in several waves and settled in the northwestern region of India—present-day Punjab. The Vedic period (1500–500 BCE) of the Vedic people in northern India is renowned for the composition of a vast collection of hymns (the Vedas). The social structure was loosely stratified through the "Varna" system, which later evolved into the highly developed "Caste" system of today. These pastoral and nomadic Indo-Aryans expanded beyond Punjab into the Gangetic plains. Around 600 BCE, a second wave of urbanization occurred, resulting in the emergence of a new inter-regional culture; subsequently, small "Janapadas" (states) coalesced to form "Mahajanapadas" (large kingdoms). This period witnessed the rise of new ascetic movements and religious concepts, including the emergence of Jainism and Buddhism. These later religions interacted with the subcontinent's pre-existing religious cultures, leading to the rise of Hinduism.

Chandragupta Maurya overthrew the Nanda Empire and established the Mauryan Empire—the first great empire of ancient India. India's Mauryan Emperor Ashoka is widely recognized for his violent conquest of Kalinga, his historic conversion to Buddhism, and his subsequent efforts to propagate non-violence and peace throughout his empire. This era marks the rapid expansion of Shramana traditions.

The Mauryan Empire collapsed in 185 BCE, when the reigning Emperor Brihadratha was assassinated by his Commander-in-Chief, Pushyamitra Shunga. In the north and northeast of the subcontinent, the Shunga Empire fragmented into numerous smaller kingdoms. Meanwhile, in the northwest, the Greco-Bactrians established Indo-Greek kingdoms, which were subsequently displaced by successive invasions of the Indo-Scythian, Indo-Parthian, and Kushan empires. Emerging from the Greater Magadha region, the Gupta Empire—between the 4th and 6th centuries CE—reunified these territories, as evidenced by the Iron Pillar of Delhi. This period, characterized by a Hindu religious and intellectual renaissance, is known as India's "Classical Age" or "Golden Age." Various facets of Indian civilization, administration, culture, and religion spread across a vast expanse of Asia, leading to the establishment of states influenced by Indian culture throughout the region and giving rise to the concept of "Greater India."

Due to repeated invasions by the Huns and the loss of its core territories, the Gupta Empire gradually began to decline. The Hun invasions were successfully repelled by regional rulers, including Yashodharman (who was supported by the Later Guptas) and, subsequently, Harsha. The large-scale invasions by the Huns—and their subsequent assimilation into Indian society—paved the way for the rise of the Pratihara dynasty; a political entity characterized by its syncretic culture. The most significant event between the 7th and 11th centuries was the "Tripartite Struggle" centered on the city of Kannauj, which ultimately resulted in the victory of the Pratiharas.

Southern India saw the rise of multiple imperial powers from the middle of the fifth century. The Chola dynasty conquered southern India in the 11th century. In the early medieval period, Indian mathematics, including Hindu numerals, influenced the development of mathematics and astronomy in the Arab world, including the creation of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system.

Islamic conquests made limited inroads into modern Afghanistan and Sindh as early as the 8th century, followed by the invasions of Mahmud Ghazni. The Delhi Sultanate, established in 1206 by Central Asian Turks, ruled much of northern India in the 14th century. It was governed by various Turkic and Afghan dynasties, including the Indo-Turkic Tughlaqs. The empire declined in the late 14th century following the invasions of Timur and saw the advent of the Malwa, Gujarat, and Bahmani sultanates, the last of which split in 1518 into the five Deccan sultanates. The wealthy Bengal Sultanate also emerged as a major power, lasting over three centuries. During this period, multiple strong Hindu kingdoms, notably the Vijayanagara Empire and Rajput states under the Kingdom of Mewar emerged and played significant roles in shaping the cultural and political landscape of India.

The early modern period began in the 16th century, when the Mughal Empire conquered most of the Indian subcontinent, signaling the proto-industrialisation, becoming the biggest global economy and manufacturing power. The Mughals suffered a gradual decline in the early 18th century, largely due to the rising power of the Marathas, who took control of extensive regions of the Indian subcontinent, and numerous Afghan invasions. The East India Company, acting as a sovereign force on behalf of the British government, gradually acquired control of huge areas of India between the middle of the 18th and the middle of the 19th centuries. Policies of company rule in India led to the Indian Rebellion of 1857. India was afterwards ruled directly by the British Crown, in the British Raj. After World War I, a nationwide struggle for independence was launched by the Indian National Congress, led by Mahatma Gandhi. Later, the All-India Muslim League would advocate for a separate Muslim-majority nation state. The British Indian Empire was partitioned in August 1947 into the Dominion of India and Dominion of Pakistan, each gaining its independence.

Prehistoric Period (before approximately 3300 BCE)

stone Age

The expansion of hominins from Africa reached the Indian subcontinent approximately two million years ago—and possibly as early as 2.2 million years ago. This dating is based on evidence indicating the presence of "Homo erectus" in Indonesia 1.8 million years ago and in East Asia 1.36 million years ago; this is further corroborated by the discovery of stone tools at Riwat in Pakistan. Although claims regarding even older discoveries have been made, the dates assigned to them—based on the dating of river sediments—have not been independently verified.

The oldest hominin fossil remains found on the Indian subcontinent belong to "Homo erectus" or "Homo heidelbergensis" from the Narmada Valley in central India, and are estimated to date back approximately half a million years. Claims of finding even older fossils have been advanced, but these are generally considered unreliable. A review of archaeological evidence suggests that hominin settlement on the Indian subcontinent remained sporadic until approximately 700,000 years ago; by this time—or more precisely, around 250,000 years ago—it had spread across a vast geographical area.

According to Tim Dyson, an expert on the historical demography of South Asia:

Modern humans—"Homo sapiens"—originated in Africa. Subsequently, between approximately 60,000 and 80,000 years ago, small groups of these humans began entering the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent in intermittent waves. It appears that, initially, they arrived here via a coastal route. It is almost certain that "Homo sapiens" were present on the subcontinent 55,000 years ago, even if the oldest fossils discovered so far date back only about 30,000 years.

According to Michael D. Petraglia and Bridget Allchin:

Y-chromosome and Mt-DNA data support the idea that modern humans migrating out of Africa began to settle in South Asia. ... For most non-European populations, the average dates of coalescence (shared ancestry) fall between 73,000 and 55,000 years ago.

South Asian historian Michael H. Fisher states:

Scholars estimate that the first successful expansion of "Homo sapiens" (modern humans) out of Africa and across the Arabian Peninsula occurred between 80,000 and 40,000 years ago, although some unsuccessful migrations may have taken place even earlier. In every generation, some of their descendants pushed the human expansion further, spreading into whatever habitable lands they reached. One route of human arrival passed through the warm and fertile coastal regions of the Persian Gulf and the northern Indian Ocean. Eventually, between 75,000 and 35,000 years ago, various groups of humans entered India.

Archaeological evidence has been interpreted as indicating the presence of anatomically modern humans on the Indian subcontinent between 78,000 and 74,000 years ago, although this interpretation remains a subject of debate. As a result of modern humans settling in South Asia—initially living as hunter-gatherers in diverse, isolated locations—the region has become one of immense diversity; in terms of human genetic diversity, it ranks second only to Africa.

According to Tim Dyson:

Genetic research has also contributed in other ways to enhancing our understanding of the prehistory of the subcontinent's people. Notably, the level of genetic diversity in this region is exceptionally high. In fact, only the population of Africa exhibits greater genetic diversity. Another related fact is that the subcontinent provides strong evidence of 'founder' events. This refers to situations where a subgroup—such as a tribe—evolves from a very small number of 'original' individuals. Furthermore, compared to most other regions of the world, the people of the subcontinent are quite distinct, as they have practiced 'endogamy'—that is, the custom of marrying exclusively within their own group—at a relatively high level.

Neolithic

Sedentary life in this subcontinent began approximately 9,000 years ago on the western margins of the alluvial plains of the Indus River, gradually evolving into the Indus Valley Civilization of the third millennium BCE. According to Tim Dyson: "By about 7,000 years ago, agriculture was fully established in Balochistan... and gradually spread eastward into the Indus Valley." Michael Fisher adds the following detail to this account:

The earliest known example of a well-established and stable agrarian society is found at 'Mehrgarh,' situated in the hills between the Bolan Pass and the Indus plains. As early as 7000 BCE, communities there had begun to invest greater effort—beyond merely preparing the land—in selecting, sowing, tending, and harvesting specific grain-bearing plants. They also domesticated animals, including sheep, goats, pigs, and cattle (of both varieties—the humped zebu and the humpless type). For instance, through the castration of bulls, these animals—which had previously served primarily as a source of meat—gradually evolved into domesticated beasts of burden as well.

Bronze Age (c. 3300 – 1800 BC)

Indus Valley Civilization

The Bronze Age in the Indian subcontinent began around 3300 BCE. The Indus Valley region was one of the three earliest centers of civilization in the Old World; the Indus Valley Civilization was the most widespread of these, and at its peak, its population may have reached five million.

This civilization was primarily centered in the Indus River Valley—located in present-day Pakistan—while the Ghaggar-Hakra River Valley served as another major hub. The Mature Indus Civilization flourished from approximately 2600 to 1900 BCE, marking the advent of urban civilization on the Indian subcontinent. Its settlements included cities in present-day Pakistan—such as Harappa, Ganeriwala, and Mohenjo-daro—as well as cities in present-day India—such as Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, and Lothal.

The inhabitants of the ancient Indus River Valley—known as Harappans—developed new techniques in metallurgy and handicrafts, producing copper, bronze, lead, and tin. This civilization is renowned for its brick-built cities and drainage systems constructed along its streets; it is also believed that some form of municipal organization existed within it. The civilization also developed an Indus script—the oldest among ancient Indian scripts—which remains undeciphered to this day. Consequently, there is no direct evidence of the Harappan language, and its linguistic affiliation remains uncertain.

Following the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization, its inhabitants migrated from the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra river valleys toward the Himalayan foothills of the Ganges-Yamuna Valley.