Indian independence movement | Background and Early British Colonialism in India

                                                                               

                                                        

The Indian Independence Movement was a series of diverse activities and events, with the primary objective of ending British rule in India. While the Revolt of 1857 is often referred to as the 'First War of Independence,' the Indian Independence Movement actually began earlier, at various times. This movement continued not only until 1947, but also afterward, culminating with the liberation of Goa.

The first nationalist revolutionary movement for Indian independence began in Bengal. It later evolved into the newly formed Indian National Congress, where prominent liberal leaders demanded the right for Indians in British India to take the Indian Civil Service examination and greater economic rights for the local population. A more radical approach to self-rule emerged in the early 20th century.

The Indian independence movement in the 1920s was characterized by the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi and the adoption of his principles of nonviolence and civil disobedience by the Congress Party. Prominent followers of Gandhi included Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhas Chandra Bose, Sardar Patel, Abdul Ghaffar Khan, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, and others. Intellectuals such as Rabindranath Tagore, Subramanyam Bharati, and Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay fostered a spirit of nationalism. Women leaders like Sarojini Naidu, Vijayalakshmi Pandit, Pritilata Waddedar, and Kasturba Gandhi promoted the emancipation of Indian women and their participation in the freedom struggle.

Some leaders adopted a more radical approach, which became even more popular after the Rowlatt Act, which allowed for indefinite detention without trial. Protests against this law erupted across India, particularly in Punjab, where they were brutally suppressed, culminating in the Jallianwala Bagh massacre.

The ideology of the Indian independence movement evolved continuously. Initially, it was primarily focused on opposing colonial rule, but it also aimed to establish an independent, economically developed, secular, democratic, republican, and civil liberties-oriented political framework. After the 1930s, the movement acquired a strong socialist orientation. It culminated in the Indian Independence Act of 1947, which ended Crown rule and partitioned British India into India and Pakistan.

Background

Early British Colonialism in India

The first European explorer to reach India via the Atlantic Ocean was the Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama, who arrived at Calicut in 1498 in search of spices. Exactly a century later, the Dutch and British established trading posts in the Indian subcontinent, with the first British trading center being established in Surat in 1613.

Over the next two centuries, the British defeated the Portuguese and the Dutch, but their rivalry with the French continued. The decline of the Mughal Empire in the first half of the 18th century gave the British an opportunity to consolidate their power in Indian politics. In the Battle of Plassey, the East India Company's army defeated the Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-Daulah, and the company emerged as a major power in Indian affairs. Following the Battle of Buxar in 1764, it gained administrative control over Bengal, Bihar, and the Midnapore region of Odisha.

After the defeat of Tipu Sultan, most of South India came under either direct British rule or indirect political control through subsidiary alliances. Later, the Company annexed the territories of the Maratha Empire after several wars. Following the defeat of the Sikh armies in the First (1845-46) and Second (1848-49) Anglo-Sikh Wars, most of Punjab was incorporated into the British Empire in 1849.

Early Revolts

Veer Azhagu Muthu Kone was one of the early rebels against British rule in Tamil Nadu. He became a military leader in the town of Ettayapuram and fought against the British and Marudhanayakkan's forces, but was defeated. He was executed in 1757. Marudhanayakkan Pillai was a commander in the Madras Army of the British East India Company; he was appointed as the ruler of Madurai. The British and the Nawab of Arcot appointed him to suppress the rebellion of the poligars (also known as palayakkarars) in South India. Later, after the fall of the Madurai Nayak dynasty, he was entrusted with the administration of the Madurai region. He later rebelled against the British and the Nawab of Arcot. A dispute arose between him and the Nawab of Arcot, and three of the Nawab's associates were bribed to capture him. He was captured during his morning prayers (Thozhugai) and executed at Samathipuram near Madurai on October 15, 1764.

                                                                         

                                        

Across eastern India and the country, tribal communities staged numerous revolts against the British and their collaborators, especially landlords and moneylenders. The frequency of revolts increased after the Battle of Buxar in 1764, when the East India Company gained the right to collect revenue in Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha. One of the earliest recorded revolts was led by Jagannath Singh, Subal Singh, and Shyam Gunjam against the East India Company in Bengal (Jharkhand and West Bengal) around 1766. Vishnu Mankhi took up arms in 1771. The Rangpur Revolt took place in the Rangpur region of Bengal from 1782 to 1783. Following Vishnu Mankhi's revolt in Jharkhand, several revolts occurred in the region, including the Bhumij revolt in Manbhum from 1798 to 1799. In 1800, the Chero rebellion took place in Palamu under the leadership of Bhukan Singh, and the Munda community in the Tamar region staged two rebellions: the first in 1807 led by Dhukan Manjhi and the second in 1819-20 led by Budhu and Kanta. The Ho rebellion occurred when the Ho community, located near Chaibasa along the Roro River in West Singhbhum, first came into contact with the British in 1820-1821, but they were defeated by the technologically superior British army. The Bhumij rebellion in the Jamshedpur region of Bengal was led by Ganga Narayan Singh, who had also led the Chuar rebellion in these areas from 1771 to 1809. Syed Mir Nisar Ali, also known as Titumir, was an Islamic religious leader who led a peasant revolt against Hindu landlords and the British in Bengal during the 19th century. With his followers, he built a bamboo fort in the village of Narkelberia, which is famous in Bengali folklore. When British soldiers attacked the fort, Titumir died from his injuries on November 19, 1831. These rebellions led to larger regional movements in and around Jharkhand, such as the Kol rebellion led by Singhrai and Bindrai Manjhi, in which the Kol (Ho, Bhumij, Munda, and Oraon) communities revolted against 'outsiders' from 1830 to 1833.

Mangal Pandey - The Indian Soldier | The Mutiny and The Hanging

Mangal Pandey (died April 8, 1857) was an Indian soldier who played a significant role in the Indian Rebellion of 1857. This rebellion led to the downfall of the East India Company and the establishment of British rule in India through the Government of India Act of 1858. He was a sepoys in the 34th Regiment of the Bengal Native Infantry. In 1984, the Government of India issued a postage stamp in his memory. His life and actions have also been depicted in several Indian films.

Early life: Mangal Pandey was born in the village of Nagwa in the Ballia district of Uttar Pradesh, into a Brahmin family. Pandey joined the Bengal Army in 1849. In March 1857, he was a sepoy in the 5th Company of the 34th Bengal Native Infantry.

The Mutiny

On the afternoon of March 29, 1857, Lieutenant Baillie, the adjutant of the 34th Bengal Native Infantry stationed at Barrackpore, received word that several soldiers in his regiment were agitated. He was also told that one of them, Mangal Pandey, was wandering around near the regiment's guardhouse with a loaded rifle, inciting mutiny and threatening to shoot the first Englishman he saw. Later investigations revealed that, amidst the unrest among the soldiers and perhaps under the influence of bhang (marijuana), Pandey had taken his weapon and, upon seeing a detachment of British soldiers disembarking from a steamer near the cantonment, rushed towards the guardhouse.

Baillie immediately grabbed his weapon and ran towards the soldiers. Pandey stood behind a field gun in front of the 34th Regiment's guardhouse, aimed at Baillie, and fired. The bullet missed Baillie but struck his horse in the belly, causing both horse and rider to fall to the ground. Baillie dismounted, drew his pistol, and advanced towards Pandey, firing. He missed. Before Baillie could draw his sword, Pandey attacked him with his heavy Indian sword, and, along with his companion, struck Baillie on the shoulder and neck, knocking him to the ground. Another soldier, Sheikh Paltu, intervened and tried to restrain Pandey, who was reloading his rifle.

A British Sergeant-Major, Huson, arrived on the parade ground at the call of an Indian Naik (corporal). Huson ordered Jemadar Ishwar Prasad, the Indian officer in charge of the guard, to arrest Pandey. The Jemadar replied that his NCOs had gone for help and that he could not arrest Pandey alone. Huson then ordered Ishwar Prasad to stand in the guard line with his weapon. Meanwhile, a crowd arrived on the parade ground shouting, "Where is he? Where is he?" Huson said to Lieutenant Baag, "For your own safety, move to the right, sir. The soldiers will shoot you!" Just then, Pandey fired his gun.

Huson lunged at Pandey while grappling with Lieutenant Baag. As Pandey turned towards him, Huson fell to the ground, shot by Pandey's gun. Hearing the gunshot, other soldiers rushed out of the barracks; they all watched what happened. At this time, Sheikh Paltu, trying to protect the two Englishmen, pleaded with the other soldiers for help. When the soldiers started throwing stones and shoes at them, Sheikh Paltu asked the guards for help to arrest Pandey, but they threatened to shoot him if he didn't let the rebel go.

Some of the quarter-guard soldiers moved forward and attacked the two fallen officers. They then threatened Sheikh Paltu and ordered him to release Pandey, whom he was vainly trying to restrain. But Paltu refused to let go of Pandey until Baag and the Sergeant-Major were able to get to their feet. By now, Paltu himself had been wounded and had to let go. He retreated in one direction, while Baag and Huson retreated in the other, both of them struck by the butts of the soldiers' muskets.

General Hersee's Intervention

Meanwhile, the commanding officer of Barrackpore, Major General John Bennet Hersee, was informed of the incident. He immediately rushed to the guardhouse with his two officer sons. It was now midday, and soldiers of the 43rd Bengal Native Infantry Regiment, who were not on duty, had joined the crowd in the parade ground. Since not all of them were armed, Hersee feared a major mutiny might erupt. He therefore ordered the British soldiers to assemble at the Governor-General's residence.

Seeing the chaos in the armory of the 34th Bengal Native Infantry, Hersee approached the guard, drew his pistol, and ordered them to arrest Mangal Pandey and carry out their duty. The general warned that anyone who disobeyed would be shot. The guard moved forward, following Hersee towards Pandey. Pandey placed the barrel of his rifle against his chest and pulled the trigger with his foot. He fell to the ground, bloodied, his regimental jacket ablaze, but he was not seriously injured.

The situation was now under control of the British and Indian officers. "Frightened and trembling," Mangal Pandey was taken to the regimental hospital for treatment.

The Hanging

Pande recovered, and his trial took place in less than a week. When asked if he was intoxicated, he firmly stated that he had mutinied of his own volition and had not been instigated by anyone else. Three Sikh soldiers from the quarter guard testified that Jamadar Ishwar Prasad had ordered them not to arrest Pande, for which he was sentenced to death along with Pande.

                                                                            

  

Mangal Pande was hanged in front of all the Indian and British soldiers stationed at Barrackpore on April 8, 1857. The Delhi Gazette of April 18th published a detailed account of the execution, stating that Pande refused to give any information and that the event had a "very bad effect on the soldiers of the regiment present."

Jamadar Ishwar Prasad was hanged separately on April 21. Unlike the stoic Mangal Pande, the Jamadar expressed remorse for his actions and implored the assembled soldiers to obey their officers in the future.

Adult education - Features of Adult education, Advantages, Cognitive Differences and Principle of Adult education.

 

Adult education is the process through which adults acquire new perspectives, knowledge, skills, or values ​​through systematic educational activities. It encompasses any form of learning in which adults participate beyond traditional schooling—ranging from basic literacy to developing self-realization as lifelong learners. "It reflects a distinct philosophy regarding learning and teaching, grounded in the premise that adults can and wish to learn; that they are capable of and willing to take responsibility for that learning; and that such education should be tailored to their own specific needs." Their ultimate goals, the opportunities available to them, and the ways in which they learn—all are influenced by demographics, globalization, and technology.

Adult education—the modalities of which can vary significantly—may take place within one or more of the following three contexts:

Formal – Structured education that typically occurs within an educational or training institution, often involving a prescribed curriculum and associated certification;

Non-formal – Education organized by educational institutions, but without associated certification. Non-formal learning opportunities may also be provided in the workplace, as well as through the activities of civil society organizations and groups;

Informal – Education that is continuous and arises from daily life activities related to work, family, community, or leisure time (for example, a baking class within the community).

The World Bank’s 2019 "World Development Report"—themed "The Changing Nature of Work"—argues that adult education serves as a crucial mechanism to help workers adapt their skills to the future landscape of work; the report also offers suggestions on how to enhance its effectiveness.

Features of Adult education

The methodology of adult education is referred to as 'andragogy' to distinguish it from traditional schooling for children ('pedagogy'). The objectives and methods of adult education are diverse. In a college or university setting, its aim is typically associated with personal development or the acquisition of skills to enhance employment opportunities. Adult education that focuses specifically on the workplace is often termed 'Human Resource Development.' Another potential motivation may be to challenge or uphold certain values ​​within one's democratic society. Apart from the training required for employees holding specific positions, adult education is voluntary.

Availability

In countries with advanced adult education systems, professional development is available through post-secondary institutions; these institutions provide professional development through their respective ministries of education, school boards, and non-governmental organizations. Furthermore, programs related to adult education for current and aspiring professionals are offered at various academic levels by universities, colleges, and professional organizations.

Adult educators have long maintained their commitment to racial justice and other forms of struggle for social justice—a commitment that encompasses the extensive work undertaken in "Freedom Schools" during the Civil Rights Movement. Contemporary commitments to racial justice within the field of adult education include efforts implemented both within and outside the workplace.

Advantages

Teaching adults differs from teaching children in several respects, as adults already possess a wealth of prior knowledge and work experience, which can significantly enrich their learning experience.

Cognitive Differences

In a study, Greenberg compared the reading, writing, and speaking skills of adults and children who were not fully literate. The study revealed that while these adults performed on par with the children in reading tasks, the children surpassed them in vocabulary and spelling tests. This suggests that, in terms of overall literacy, these adults are comparable to children; however, they demonstrate distinct strengths in specific, specialized skills.

Disadvantages

Adults often harbor a heightened "fear of failure," which can exacerbate their anxiety—particularly if their past educational experiences have not always been positive.

Objective

Adult education can be pursued for vocational, social, recreational, or self-development purposes. It can also serve as a form of social justice by providing accessible education to disadvantaged populations. Adult education is grounded in government social policies. Continuing education can assist adults in maintaining their professional certifications, fulfilling job-related requirements, and staying abreast of new developments within their respective fields.

As the socio-economic status of a society advances, so too do the requirements related to human quality. The concept of "lifelong learning" was proposed in the 1960s; this development ushered in a shift in contemporary educational paradigms. Consequently, its ultimate objective may be the attainment of human fulfillment. It may also aim to address the specific needs of an institution—for instance, by enhancing its operational efficiency and productivity. A broader objective of adult education may be the holistic development of society, empowering citizens to adapt to social changes and contribute to the maintenance of a robust social order.

A rapidly expanding domain within the field of adult education is "English for Speakers of Other Languages" (ESOL)—also known as "English as a Second Language" (ESL) or "English Language Learners" (ELL). These courses play a pivotal role in assisting immigrants—not only in acquiring the English language but also in the process of integrating into the cultures of the United States, as well as other English-speaking nations such as Canada, Australia, and New Zealand.

Principle

Eduard C. Lindeman was the first expert to present a systematic account of adult education. In his educational theory, he views education as a lifelong process. He emphasized that, due to the continuous developments and changes occurring in social life and the surrounding environment, knowledge and information are perpetually engaged in a constant cycle of transmission, enrichment, and updating; consequently, it becomes imperative for individuals to engage in continuous learning in order to keep pace with the changes taking place in the external world. Furthermore, he believed that adult learners should not only learn to fulfill the requirements of their work and livelihood but should also be afforded the opportunity to enrich themselves. He firmly asserted that adult education is a profoundly inspiring and life-transforming instrument. Adult education should not merely assist individuals in enhancing their skills and capabilities within their professional fields, but should also provide them with appropriate guidance to attain happiness and fulfillment beyond the workplace.

Additionally, Lindeman posited that the most valuable resource for adult learners is their own experience. He believed that the fundamental objective of adult education is to imbue life's diverse experiences with meaningful significance. Experience serves to reinforce both the learners' autonomous (self-learning) capacity and their cognitive (intellectual) abilities.

Moreover, Lindeman held the view that adult education serves as a crucial medium for the upliftment and improvement of society. The primary function of adult education is to foster the physical and mental development of adult learners. He argued that adult education acts as an exceptionally powerful and effective tool for social workers. Through adult education, the personal codes of conduct and cultural knowledge of adult learners should be refined, thereby facilitating the gradual realization of desired improvements within the overall social environment and its organization.

Adult Pedagogy

In the 1970s, Malcolm Knowles introduced 'andragogy' as the primary theory of adult learning, defining it as "the art and science of helping adults learn." Andragogy is grounded in how adults learn—specifically, by leveraging the neurological and cultural differences inherent in their learning styles to enhance the quality of their education.

Knowles's theory of andragogy helps adults construct new knowledge from their past experiences and further reinforce their existing understanding. Andragogy involves designing coursework that is directly linked to how the student will apply the subject matter in their own life. It offers the opportunity to utilize one's ever-expanding life experiences as an educational resource. Educators who employ the principles of andragogy in designing their coursework find that their students make progress more rapidly and are more successful in achieving their goals.

Andragogy (the art and science of adult education) presents six core assumptions regarding adult learners:

As individuals mature, their self-concept shifts from dependency toward self-direction;

Adults have accumulated a vast reservoir of experiences through family responsibilities, work-related activities, and prior education;

Adults' readiness to learn is deeply intertwined with the developmental tasks associated with their social roles;

Adult learners prioritize the immediate application of knowledge;

Adults' motivation to learn stems from internal drives rather than external factors;

Adults need to understand why they need to learn something.

Knowles suggests that these characteristics should be taken into account when designing programs for adults and when facilitating adult learning processes.

He also proposed a model of self-directed learning. In Knowles' view, self-directed learning is a process in which individuals actively assess their learning needs, set learning goals, select and implement appropriate learning strategies, and evaluate their learning outcomes.

Indira Gandhi ( India's first women prime minister ) | Early life and career.

Indira Priyadarshini Gandhi (19 November 1917 – 31 October 1984) served as the Prime Minister of India for three consecutive terms from 1966 to 1977 and again from 1980 until her assassination in 1984. She was India's first female Prime Minister.

Early Life and Career

Indira was born on 19 November 1917 into the politically influential Nehru family. Her father was Jawaharlal Nehru and her mother was Kamala Nehru. She had no blood or marital relation with Mahatma Gandhi. Her father, Jawaharlal Nehru, was a key figure in the Indian independence movement and became the first Prime Minister of independent India.

After completing her schooling in 1934-35, Indira enrolled at Visva-Bharati University, established by Rabindranath Tagore at Shantiniketan. Rabindranath Tagore himself gave her the name "Priyadarshini". She then went to England and took the entrance examination for Oxford University, but failed. After spending a few months at Badminton School in Bristol, she gained admission to Somerville College, Oxford, after passing the examination in 1937. During this time, she frequently met Feroze Gandhi. They were married on 16 March 1942 in a private Arya Samaj-Vedic ceremony at Anand Bhawan in Allahabad.

After returning to India from Oxford in 1941, she joined the Indian independence movement. In the 1950s, she informally served as her father's personal assistant during his tenure as the first Prime Minister of India. After her father's death in 1964, she was appointed as a member of the Rajya Sabha. Later, she became the Minister of Information and Broadcasting in Lal Bahadur Shastri's cabinet.

After the sudden death of Lal Bahadur Shastri, the then Congress Party president, K. Kamaraj played a crucial role in bringing Indira Gandhi to power as Prime Minister. Gandhi quickly demonstrated that she could win elections and dominate her opponents based on her popularity. She implemented more left-leaning economic policies and promoted agricultural productivity. Following the decisive victory in the 1971 Indo-Pakistani War, during a period of instability, she imposed a state of emergency in 1975.  She and the Congress Party suffered their first electoral defeat in the 1977 general elections. After returning to power in 1980, she faced an escalating conflict with Sikh separatists, primarily in Punjab, which ultimately culminated in her assassination by her own bodyguards in 1984.

Early Life

Indira was born on November 19, 1917, to Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru and his wife, Kamla Nehru. She was their only child. The Nehru family had roots in Brahmin families of Jammu and Kashmir and Delhi. Her maternal grandfather, Motilal Nehru, was a wealthy barrister from Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh. Jawaharlal Nehru was a prominent member of the Indian National Congress. Her father, Motilal Nehru, was a popular leader of the Indian independence movement. At the time of Indira's birth, Jawaharlal Nehru had joined the independence movement under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi.

Growing up under the care of her mother, who was mostly occupied with household chores due to poor health, Indira developed a sense of security and a somewhat reserved personality. Her grandfather and father's constant involvement in national politics made it difficult for her to socialize with friends. She had disagreements with her aunts (her father's sisters), including Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit, which continued into the political arena.

Indira formed an organization for children called the 'Monkey Brigade,' which made a small but significant contribution to the Indian independence movement by helping Congress leaders distribute sensitive publications and prohibited materials, and by participating in protests and flag marches. A frequently told story is that in the early 1930s, she secretly carried a crucial document about a major revolutionary plan from her father's house, which was under police surveillance, in her school bag.

In 1936, her mother, Kamla Nehru, passed away after a long illness with tuberculosis. Indira was 18 at the time, so she never experienced a stable family life during her childhood. She studied at prominent Indian, European, and British schools such as Shantiniketan, Badminton School, and Oxford. In the late 1930s, while studying at Somerville College, Oxford University in England, she became a member of the London-based Indian League, a pro-independence organization. While living in Europe and Britain, she met Parsi Congress activist Feroze Gandhi, and on March 16, 1942, just before the Quit India Movement launched by Mahatma Gandhi and the Congress Party, they married in a private Arya Samaj-Vedic ceremony at Anand Bhawan, Allahabad. In September 1942, the British authorities arrested her and imprisoned her without any charges. After more than 243 days in jail, she was released on May 13, 1943. In 1944, Indira and Feroze Gandhi's first child, Rajiv Gandhi, was born, and two years later, Sanjay Gandhi.

At the time of the Partition of India in 1947, she helped organize refugee camps and provide medical aid to the millions of refugees who had fled from Pakistan. This was her first major step into public service.

The Gandhi family later settled in Allahabad, where Feroze worked for a Congress Party newspaper and an insurance company. Their marriage was initially happy, but later, when Indira moved to New Delhi to live with her father, who was living alone and under great stress at 3 Motilal Nehru Marg (later renamed Teen Murti Marg) as Prime Minister, she became his trusted secretary and nurse. Her sons lived with her, but she eventually separated from Feroze, although they remained legally married.

When India's first general election came in 1951, Indira campaigned for both her father and her husband, who was contesting the Rae Bareli seat. Feroze had not consulted Nehru about contesting the election, and although he won, he decided to live separately in Delhi. Feroze established himself as a leader against political corruption by exposing a major scandal in government insurance companies, forcing Nehru's close associate, the Finance Minister, to resign.

At the height of their marital difficulties, Indira separated from her husband. However, her relationship with Feroze improved after his heart attack in 1958, shortly after a by-election. They grew closer during Feroze's recovery in Kashmir, where Indira cared for him. However, on September 8, 1960, while Indira was on a foreign trip with her father, Feroze passed away.

Ancient indian culture - Prehistoric Period ( stone Age ), Bronze Age ( Indus Valley Civilization )

 

Physically modern humans first arrived on the Indian subcontinent between 73,000 and 55,000 years ago. The oldest known human remains in South Asia date back 30,000 years. Sedentary life in South Asia began around 7000 BCE; by 4500 BCE, settled life had spread and gradually evolved into the Indus Valley Civilization. This was one of the three earliest cradles of Old World civilization, flourishing between 2500 BCE and 1900 BCE in what is today Pakistan and northwestern India. In the early second millennium BCE, due to persistent droughts, the population of the Indus Valley dispersed from large urban centers into villages. Between approximately 1800 and 1500 BCE, Indo-Aryan tribes arrived from Central Asia in several waves and settled in the northwestern region of India—present-day Punjab. The Vedic period (1500–500 BCE) of the Vedic people in northern India is renowned for the composition of a vast collection of hymns (the Vedas). The social structure was loosely stratified through the "Varna" system, which later evolved into the highly developed "Caste" system of today. These pastoral and nomadic Indo-Aryans expanded beyond Punjab into the Gangetic plains. Around 600 BCE, a second wave of urbanization occurred, resulting in the emergence of a new inter-regional culture; subsequently, small "Janapadas" (states) coalesced to form "Mahajanapadas" (large kingdoms). This period witnessed the rise of new ascetic movements and religious concepts, including the emergence of Jainism and Buddhism. These later religions interacted with the subcontinent's pre-existing religious cultures, leading to the rise of Hinduism.

Chandragupta Maurya overthrew the Nanda Empire and established the Mauryan Empire—the first great empire of ancient India. India's Mauryan Emperor Ashoka is widely recognized for his violent conquest of Kalinga, his historic conversion to Buddhism, and his subsequent efforts to propagate non-violence and peace throughout his empire. This era marks the rapid expansion of Shramana traditions.

The Mauryan Empire collapsed in 185 BCE, when the reigning Emperor Brihadratha was assassinated by his Commander-in-Chief, Pushyamitra Shunga. In the north and northeast of the subcontinent, the Shunga Empire fragmented into numerous smaller kingdoms. Meanwhile, in the northwest, the Greco-Bactrians established Indo-Greek kingdoms, which were subsequently displaced by successive invasions of the Indo-Scythian, Indo-Parthian, and Kushan empires. Emerging from the Greater Magadha region, the Gupta Empire—between the 4th and 6th centuries CE—reunified these territories, as evidenced by the Iron Pillar of Delhi. This period, characterized by a Hindu religious and intellectual renaissance, is known as India's "Classical Age" or "Golden Age." Various facets of Indian civilization, administration, culture, and religion spread across a vast expanse of Asia, leading to the establishment of states influenced by Indian culture throughout the region and giving rise to the concept of "Greater India."

Due to repeated invasions by the Huns and the loss of its core territories, the Gupta Empire gradually began to decline. The Hun invasions were successfully repelled by regional rulers, including Yashodharman (who was supported by the Later Guptas) and, subsequently, Harsha. The large-scale invasions by the Huns—and their subsequent assimilation into Indian society—paved the way for the rise of the Pratihara dynasty; a political entity characterized by its syncretic culture. The most significant event between the 7th and 11th centuries was the "Tripartite Struggle" centered on the city of Kannauj, which ultimately resulted in the victory of the Pratiharas.

Southern India saw the rise of multiple imperial powers from the middle of the fifth century. The Chola dynasty conquered southern India in the 11th century. In the early medieval period, Indian mathematics, including Hindu numerals, influenced the development of mathematics and astronomy in the Arab world, including the creation of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system.

Islamic conquests made limited inroads into modern Afghanistan and Sindh as early as the 8th century, followed by the invasions of Mahmud Ghazni. The Delhi Sultanate, established in 1206 by Central Asian Turks, ruled much of northern India in the 14th century. It was governed by various Turkic and Afghan dynasties, including the Indo-Turkic Tughlaqs. The empire declined in the late 14th century following the invasions of Timur and saw the advent of the Malwa, Gujarat, and Bahmani sultanates, the last of which split in 1518 into the five Deccan sultanates. The wealthy Bengal Sultanate also emerged as a major power, lasting over three centuries. During this period, multiple strong Hindu kingdoms, notably the Vijayanagara Empire and Rajput states under the Kingdom of Mewar emerged and played significant roles in shaping the cultural and political landscape of India.

The early modern period began in the 16th century, when the Mughal Empire conquered most of the Indian subcontinent, signaling the proto-industrialisation, becoming the biggest global economy and manufacturing power. The Mughals suffered a gradual decline in the early 18th century, largely due to the rising power of the Marathas, who took control of extensive regions of the Indian subcontinent, and numerous Afghan invasions. The East India Company, acting as a sovereign force on behalf of the British government, gradually acquired control of huge areas of India between the middle of the 18th and the middle of the 19th centuries. Policies of company rule in India led to the Indian Rebellion of 1857. India was afterwards ruled directly by the British Crown, in the British Raj. After World War I, a nationwide struggle for independence was launched by the Indian National Congress, led by Mahatma Gandhi. Later, the All-India Muslim League would advocate for a separate Muslim-majority nation state. The British Indian Empire was partitioned in August 1947 into the Dominion of India and Dominion of Pakistan, each gaining its independence.

Prehistoric Period (before approximately 3300 BCE)

stone Age

The expansion of hominins from Africa reached the Indian subcontinent approximately two million years ago—and possibly as early as 2.2 million years ago. This dating is based on evidence indicating the presence of "Homo erectus" in Indonesia 1.8 million years ago and in East Asia 1.36 million years ago; this is further corroborated by the discovery of stone tools at Riwat in Pakistan. Although claims regarding even older discoveries have been made, the dates assigned to them—based on the dating of river sediments—have not been independently verified.

The oldest hominin fossil remains found on the Indian subcontinent belong to "Homo erectus" or "Homo heidelbergensis" from the Narmada Valley in central India, and are estimated to date back approximately half a million years. Claims of finding even older fossils have been advanced, but these are generally considered unreliable. A review of archaeological evidence suggests that hominin settlement on the Indian subcontinent remained sporadic until approximately 700,000 years ago; by this time—or more precisely, around 250,000 years ago—it had spread across a vast geographical area.

According to Tim Dyson, an expert on the historical demography of South Asia:

Modern humans—"Homo sapiens"—originated in Africa. Subsequently, between approximately 60,000 and 80,000 years ago, small groups of these humans began entering the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent in intermittent waves. It appears that, initially, they arrived here via a coastal route. It is almost certain that "Homo sapiens" were present on the subcontinent 55,000 years ago, even if the oldest fossils discovered so far date back only about 30,000 years.

According to Michael D. Petraglia and Bridget Allchin:

Y-chromosome and Mt-DNA data support the idea that modern humans migrating out of Africa began to settle in South Asia. ... For most non-European populations, the average dates of coalescence (shared ancestry) fall between 73,000 and 55,000 years ago.

South Asian historian Michael H. Fisher states:

Scholars estimate that the first successful expansion of "Homo sapiens" (modern humans) out of Africa and across the Arabian Peninsula occurred between 80,000 and 40,000 years ago, although some unsuccessful migrations may have taken place even earlier. In every generation, some of their descendants pushed the human expansion further, spreading into whatever habitable lands they reached. One route of human arrival passed through the warm and fertile coastal regions of the Persian Gulf and the northern Indian Ocean. Eventually, between 75,000 and 35,000 years ago, various groups of humans entered India.

Archaeological evidence has been interpreted as indicating the presence of anatomically modern humans on the Indian subcontinent between 78,000 and 74,000 years ago, although this interpretation remains a subject of debate. As a result of modern humans settling in South Asia—initially living as hunter-gatherers in diverse, isolated locations—the region has become one of immense diversity; in terms of human genetic diversity, it ranks second only to Africa.

According to Tim Dyson:

Genetic research has also contributed in other ways to enhancing our understanding of the prehistory of the subcontinent's people. Notably, the level of genetic diversity in this region is exceptionally high. In fact, only the population of Africa exhibits greater genetic diversity. Another related fact is that the subcontinent provides strong evidence of 'founder' events. This refers to situations where a subgroup—such as a tribe—evolves from a very small number of 'original' individuals. Furthermore, compared to most other regions of the world, the people of the subcontinent are quite distinct, as they have practiced 'endogamy'—that is, the custom of marrying exclusively within their own group—at a relatively high level.

Neolithic

Sedentary life in this subcontinent began approximately 9,000 years ago on the western margins of the alluvial plains of the Indus River, gradually evolving into the Indus Valley Civilization of the third millennium BCE. According to Tim Dyson: "By about 7,000 years ago, agriculture was fully established in Balochistan... and gradually spread eastward into the Indus Valley." Michael Fisher adds the following detail to this account:

The earliest known example of a well-established and stable agrarian society is found at 'Mehrgarh,' situated in the hills between the Bolan Pass and the Indus plains. As early as 7000 BCE, communities there had begun to invest greater effort—beyond merely preparing the land—in selecting, sowing, tending, and harvesting specific grain-bearing plants. They also domesticated animals, including sheep, goats, pigs, and cattle (of both varieties—the humped zebu and the humpless type). For instance, through the castration of bulls, these animals—which had previously served primarily as a source of meat—gradually evolved into domesticated beasts of burden as well.

Bronze Age (c. 3300 – 1800 BC)

Indus Valley Civilization

The Bronze Age in the Indian subcontinent began around 3300 BCE. The Indus Valley region was one of the three earliest centers of civilization in the Old World; the Indus Valley Civilization was the most widespread of these, and at its peak, its population may have reached five million.

This civilization was primarily centered in the Indus River Valley—located in present-day Pakistan—while the Ghaggar-Hakra River Valley served as another major hub. The Mature Indus Civilization flourished from approximately 2600 to 1900 BCE, marking the advent of urban civilization on the Indian subcontinent. Its settlements included cities in present-day Pakistan—such as Harappa, Ganeriwala, and Mohenjo-daro—as well as cities in present-day India—such as Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, and Lothal.

The inhabitants of the ancient Indus River Valley—known as Harappans—developed new techniques in metallurgy and handicrafts, producing copper, bronze, lead, and tin. This civilization is renowned for its brick-built cities and drainage systems constructed along its streets; it is also believed that some form of municipal organization existed within it. The civilization also developed an Indus script—the oldest among ancient Indian scripts—which remains undeciphered to this day. Consequently, there is no direct evidence of the Harappan language, and its linguistic affiliation remains uncertain.

Following the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization, its inhabitants migrated from the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra river valleys toward the Himalayan foothills of the Ganges-Yamuna Valley.

Visual arts education - Cultural appropriation within the classroom and development of Visual arts education

 

Arts based on visual arts education

Visual arts education is the area of learning that is based upon visual art forms such as—drawing, painting, sculpture, printmaking. Within these forms of art may be designs in jewelry, pottery, weaving, fabrics, and design applied to more practical fields such as commercial graphics and home furnishings. Contemporary topics include photography, video, film, design, and computer art.

Overall, Art education focuses on students creating art, on learning to criticize or appreciate art, or some combination of the two. The key components of teaching art is different among different groups of people, depending on their teaching style, culture, or even the country that they live in. Visual Arts education has been adapted in many ways, even to those members of special education.

Visual arts education approaches

Art is often taught through drawing, painting, sculpture, installation, and mark making. Drawing is viewed as an empirical activity which involves seeing, interpreting and discovering appropriate marks to demonstrate an object, place, or thing based on an observation. Drawing instruction has been a component of formal education in the West since the Hellenistic period. In East Asia, arts education for nonprofessional artists typically focused on brushwork; calligraphy was numbered among the Six Arts of gentlemen in the Chinese Zhou dynasty, and calligraphy and Chinese painting were numbered among the four arts of scholar-officials in imperial China.

An alternative approach to art education involves an emphasis on imagination, both in interpreting and creating art. Many educators require student analysis and peer critique on artwork. This is to get students to consider the deeper meaning behind works, rather than just showing them a pretty picture. Art education is also about experimentation and purposeful play and linking their art to conceptual messages and personal experiences. Allowing students to connect a piece to emotion, helps them better understand how the artwork connects to the artist and their subject, developing their critical thinking skills. Alternative approaches, such as visual culture and issue-based approaches in which students explore societal and personal issues through art, also inform art education today.

Prominent curricular models for art education include:

A sixfold model divided into "Creative-Productive, Cultural-Historical and Critical-Responsive" components in some provinces of Canada

Discipline Based Art Education (DBAE) came to favor in the United States during the 1980s and 1990s, and it focused on specific skills including techniques, art criticism and art history. Heavily backed by the Getty Education Institute for the Arts, DBAE faded after the Institute ceased funding in 1998.

Teaching for Artistic Behavior (TAB) is a choice-based model that began in the 1970s in Massachusetts in the United States. TAB suggests that students should be the artists and be guided on their own individual artistic interests. TAB based curricular models have increased in popularity as classroom culture shifts from preference of direct instruction to student-centered and Inquiry-based learning.

In addition, especially in higher education in the liberal arts tradition, art is often taught as "art appreciation", a subject for aesthetic criticism rather than direct engagement.

Some studies show that strong art education programs have demonstrated increased student performance in other academic areas, due to art activities' exercising their brains' right hemispheres and DE lateralizing their thinking. Also see Betty Edwards' Drawing on the Right Side of the Brain.

Art education is not limited to formal educational institutions. Some professional artists provide private or semi-private instruction in their own studios. This may take the form of an apprenticeship in which the student learns from a professional artist while assisting the artist with their work. One form of this teaching style is the Atelier Method as exemplified by Gustave Moreau who taught Picasso, Braque and many other artists.

Apprenticeship

Historically art was taught in Europe via the atelier method system where artists took on apprentices who learned their trade in much the same way as that of craft guilds such as the stonemasons or goldsmiths. During their free time formal training took place in art workshops or, more often, in homes or alone outside. It was in these ateliers that artists learned the craft through apprenticeship to masters, a relationship that was controlled by guild statutes. Florentine contracts dating from the late 13th century state that the master was expected to clothe and feed the apprentice, who was called upon to be a faithful servant in return. An apprentice often paid the master during the early years of his education; assuming the apprenticeship was productive, the student would be compensated later in his training. Northern European workshops featured similar terms.

Initially, learning to draw was a priority in this system. Michelangelo recommended that a young painter spend a year on drawing alone, then six years grinding colors, preparing panels and using gold leaf, during which time the study of drawing would continue. Another six years would be required to master fresco and tempera painting.

Historically, design has had some precedence over the fine arts with schools of design being established all over Europe in the 18th century. These examples of skill and values from the early European art inspired later generations, including the Colonists of early America.

Cultural appropriation within the classroom

Individuals who employ cultural appropriation have the ability to produce works of considerable aesthetic merit. Using properties of art from different cultures such as decoration or emulation of creative process can foster a greater understanding and appreciation of crafts from different cultures. This technique can be appreciated in the production of African or Native-American mask making projects, where students emulate technique and explore new material use and construction methods which esteem those practices of different cultures.

Development of Visual arts education in different countries

Argentina

The leading country in the development of the arts in Latin America, in 1875 created the National Society for the Stimulus of the Arts, founded by painters Eduardo Schlieffen, Eduardo Savory, and other artists. In 1905, their guild was rechartered as the National Academy of Fine Arts, then in 1923, on the initiative of painter and academic Ernesto de la Cordova, became a department in the University of Buenos Aires, under the name of Superior Art School of the Nation. Currently, the country's leading educational organization for the arts is the UNA Universidad Nacional de las Artes.

Australia

Australian Universities which have Visual / Fine Art departments or courses within their institutions have moved from Studio Based teaching models, associated with Art Schools, to more integrated theoretical / practical emphasis. University of Western Australia has moved from a master's degree with theoretical emphasis to a theoretical BA Art degree.

Studio based teaching initiatives integrating contextual and media elements have been implemented as part of a national Studio Teaching Project supported by the Australian Learning and Teaching Council (ALTC) since 2007.

Egypt

The first modern art school in Egypt was opened in 1908 as the Cairo College of Fine Arts. These early art schools largely taught the Western aesthetic traditions. As a result, after independence there was an effort to incorporate Egyptian and Middle Eastern traditions into art and art appreciation courses. However, the process was slow; students at Cairo College of Fine Arts were not able to major in non-European art history until 1999.

Italy

Art schools were established in Italy as early as the 13th century, starting with a painting school in Venice founded by a Greek painter named Theophanes around 1200.

The Netherlands

The Dutch Art Teachers Association was founded in 1880 and began to publish a monthly magazine in 1884. Since the late 20th century, the growing diversity of Dutch society has made Dutch art and art education increasingly multicultural.

United Kingdom

Formal art education emerged in the United Kingdom in the early 19th century, motivated in part by a desire to match the quality of design work being done in France. The model initially adopted was that of the German commercial schools. Prince Albert was particularly influential in the creation of schools of Art in the UK.

Currently in the UK, the art curriculum is prescribed by the government's National Curriculum except in public or fee paying schools. Prince Charles has created The Prince's Drawing School in Hoxton to preserve the teaching of academic drawing.

Access Art

Access Art is a British arts charity and membership organization, working across the UK to further 'the advancement of visual arts education'. It is the leading provider of digital visual arts resources in the UK, with over 22,000 schools as paying members, using Access Art's educational materials in their teaching.

Founded in 1999 by Royal College of Art graduates, Paula Briggs and Sheila Ciccarelli and registering as a charity in 2004. Projects include:

"The first exhibition of work made by primary school children at The Fitzwilliam Museum in its 250 year history and was designed in partnership with Access Art.""The Inspire project demonstrates how a regional art museum can serve as a hub for teacher training and development and support the development of a community of practice around art and design education.

Natural environment - Components of the natural environment, Geological activity and Components of water on Earth

 

Components of the natural environment

The natural environment or natural world encompasses all biotic and abiotic things occurring naturally, meaning in this case not artificial. The term is most often applied to Earth or some parts of Earth. This environment encompasses the interaction of all living species, climate, weather and natural resources that affect human survival and economic activity. The concept of the natural environment can be distinguished as components:

Complete ecological units that function as natural systems without massive civilized human intervention, including all vegetation, microorganisms, soil, rocks, plateaus, mountains, the atmosphere and natural phenomena that occur within their boundaries and their nature.

Universal natural resources and physical phenomena that lack clear-cut boundaries, such as air, water and climate, as well as energy, radiation, electric charge and magnetism, not originating from civilized human actions.

In contrast to the natural environment is the built environment. Built environments are where humans have fundamentally transformed landscapes such as urban settings and agricultural land conversion, the natural environment is greatly changed into a simplified human environment. Even acts which seem less extreme, such as building a mud hut or a photovoltaic system in the desert, the modified environment becomes an artificial one. Though many animals build things to provide a better environment for themselves, they are not human, hence beaver dams and the works of mound-building termites are thought of as natural.

There are no absolutely natural environments on Earth. Naturalness usually varies in a continuum, from 100% natural in one extreme to 0% natural in the other. The massive environmental changes of humanity in the Anthropocene have fundamentally affected all natural environments including: climate change, biodiversity loss and pollution from plastic and other chemicals in the air and water. More precisely, we can consider the different aspects or components of an environment, and see that their degree of naturalness is not uniform. If, for instance, we take an agricultural field, and consider the mineralogic composition and the structure of its soil, we will find that whereas the first is quite similar to that of an undisturbed forest soil, the structure is quite different.

Composition

Earth science generally recognizes four spheres, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere and the biosphere as correspondent to rocks, water, air and life respectively. Some scientists include as part of the spheres of the Earth, the cryosphere (corresponding to ice) as a distinct portion of the hydrosphere, as well as the pedosphere (to soil) as an active and intermixed sphere. Earth science , is an all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth. There are four major disciplines in earth sciences, namely geography, geology, geophysics and geodesy. These major disciplines use physics, chemistry, biology, chronology and mathematics to build a qualitative and quantitative understanding of the principal areas or spheres of Earth.

Geological activity

The Earth's crust or lithosphere, is the outermost solid surface of the planet and is chemically, physically and mechanically different from underlying mantle. It has been generated greatly by igneous processes in which magma cools and solidifies to form solid rock. Beneath the lithosphere lies the mantle which is heated by the decay of radioactive elements. The mantle though solid is in a state of rheic convection. This convection process causes the lithospheric plates to move, albeit slowly. The resulting process is known as plate tectonics. Volcanoes result primarily from the melting of subducted crust material or of rising mantle at mid-ocean ridges and mantle plumes.

Components of water on Earth

Most water is found in various kinds of natural body of water.

Oceans

An ocean is a major body of saline water and a component of the hydrosphere. Approximately 71% of the surface of the Earth (an area of some 362 million square kilometers) is covered by ocean, a continuous body of water that is customarily divided into several principal oceans and smaller seas. More than half of this area is over 3,000 meters (9,800 ft) deep. Average oceanic salinity is around 35 parts per thousand (ppt) (3.5%), and nearly all seawater has a salinity in the range of 30 to 38 ppt. Though generally recognized as several separate oceans, these waters comprise one global, interconnected body of salt water often referred to as the World Ocean or global ocean. The deep seabeds are more than half the Earth's surface, and are among the least-modified natural environments. The major oceanic divisions are defined in part by the continents, various archipelagos and other criteria, these divisions are, in descending order of size, the Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, the Indian Ocean, the Southern Ocean and the Arctic Ocean.

Rivers

A river is a natural watercourse, usually freshwater, flowing toward an ocean, a lake, a sea or another river. A few rivers simply flow into the ground and dry up completely without reaching another body of water.

The water in a river is usually in a channel, made up of a stream bed between banks. In larger rivers there is often also a wider floodplain shaped by waters over-topping the channel. Flood plains may be very wide in relation to the size of the river channel. Rivers are a part of the hydrological cycle. Water within a river is generally collected from precipitation through surface runoff, groundwater recharge, springs and the release of water stored in glaciers and snowpacks.

Small rivers may also be called by several other names, including stream, creek and brook. Their current is confined within a bed and stream banks. Streams play an important corridor role in connecting fragmented habitats and thus in conserving biodiversity. The study of streams and waterways in general is known as surface

Lakes

A lake is a terrain feature, a body of water that is localized to the bottom of basin. A body of water is considered a lake when it is inland, is not part of an ocean and is larger and deeper than a pond.

Natural lakes on Earth are generally found in mountainous areas, rift zones and areas with ongoing or recent glaciation. Other lakes are found in endorheic basins or along the courses of mature rivers. In some parts of the world, there are many lakes because of chaotic drainage patterns left over from the last ice age. All lakes are temporary over geologic time scales, as they will slowly fill in with sediments or spill out of the basin containing them.

Human impact on water sources

Humans impact the water in different ways such as modifying rivers (through dams and stream channelization), urbanization and deforestation. These impact lake levels, groundwater conditions, water pollution, thermal pollution, and marine pollution. Humans modify rivers by using direct channel manipulation. We build dams and reservoirs and manipulate the direction of the rivers and water path. Dams can usefully create reservoirs and hydroelectric power. However, reservoirs and dams may negatively impact the environment and wildlife. Dams stop fish migration and the movement of organisms downstream. Urbanization affects the environment because of deforestation and changing lake levels, groundwater conditions, etc. Deforestation and urbanization go hand in hand. Deforestation may cause flooding, declining stream flow and changes in riverside vegetation. The changing vegetation occurs because when trees cannot get adequate water they start to deteriorate, leading to a decreased food supply for the wildlife in an area.

Atmosphere, climate and weather

The atmosphere of the Earth serves as a key factor in sustaining the planetary ecosystem. The thin layer of gases that envelops the Earth is held in place by the planet's gravity. Dry air consists of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 1% argon, inert gases and carbon dioxide. The remaining gases are often referred to as trace gases. The atmosphere includes greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and ozone. Filtered air includes trace amounts of many other chemical compounds. Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor and suspensions of water droplets and ice crystals seen as clouds. Many natural substances may be present in tiny amounts in an unfiltered air sample, including dust, pollen and spores, sea spray, volcanic ash and meteoroids. Various industrial pollutants also may be present, such as chlorine , fluorine compounds, elemental mercury, and sulfur compounds such as sulfur dioxide (SO2).

The ozone layer of the Earth's atmosphere plays an important role in reducing the amount of ultraviolet (UV) radiation that reaches the surface. As DNA is readily damaged by UV light, this serves to protect life at the surface. The atmosphere also retains heat during the night, thereby reducing the daily temperature extremes.

Environmental education - Approaches to Environmental education, The roots of Environmental education

 

What is environmental education?

Environmental education (EE) refers to organized efforts to teach how natural environments function, and particularly, how human beings can manage behavior and ecosystems to live sustainably. It is a multi-disciplinary field integrating disciplines such as biology, chemistry, physics, ecology, earth science, atmospheric science, mathematics, and geography.

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) states that EE is vital in imparting an inherent respect for nature among society and in enhancing public environmental awareness. UNESCO emphasises the role of EE in safeguarding future global developments of societal quality of life (QOL), through the protection of the environment, eradication of poverty, minimization of inequalities and insurance of sustainable development.

The term often implies education within the school system, from primary to post-secondary. However, it sometimes includes all efforts to educate the public and other audiences, including print materials, websites, media campaigns, etc. There are also ways that environmental education is taught outside the traditional classroom: aquariums, zoos, parks, and nature centers all have ways of teaching the public about the environment.

UNESCO and environmental awareness and education

UNESCO'S involvement in environmental awareness and education goes back to the very beginnings of the Organization, with the creation in 1948 of the IUCN (International Union for the Conservation of Nature, now the World Conservation Union), the first major non-governmental organization (NGO) mandated to help preserve the natural environment. UNESCO was also closely involved in convening the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm, Sweden in 1972, which led to the setting up of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Subsequently, for two decades, UNESCO and UNEP led the International Environmental Education Programme (1975-1995), which set out a vision for, and gave practical guidance on how to mobilize education for environmental awareness.

In 1976, UNESCO launched an environmental education newsletter 'Connect' as the official organ of the UNESCO-UNEP International Environmental Education Programme (IEEP). It served as a clearinghouse to exchange information on Environmental Education in general and to promote the aims and activities of the IEEP in particular, as well as being a network for institutions and individuals interested and active in environment education until 2007.

The long-standing cooperation between UNESCO and UNEP on environmental education also led to the co-organization of four major international conferences on environmental education since 1977: the First Intergovernmental Conference on Environmental Education in Tbilisi, Georgia (October 1977); the Conference "International Strategy for Action in the Field of Environmental Education and Training for the 1990s" in Moscow, Russian Federation (August 1987); the third International Conference "Environment and Society: Education and Public Awareness for Sustainability" at Thessaloniki, Greece (December 1997); and the Fourth International Conference on Environmental Education towards a Sustainable Future in Ahmedabad, India (November 2007). These meetings highlighted the pivotal role education plays in sustainable development.

It was at the Tbilisi conference in 1977 that the essential role of 'education in environmental matters' (as stated in the recommendations of the 1972 Stockholm Conference) was fully explored. Organized by UNESCO in cooperation with UNEP, this was the world's first intergovernmental conference on environmental education. In the subsequent Tbilisi Declaration, environment was interpreted in its 'totality—natural and built, technological and social (economic, political, cultural-historical, ethical, aesthetic)' . The goals formulated for environmental education went far beyond ecology in the curriculum and included development of a 'clear awareness of, and concern about, economic, social, political, and ecological interdependence in urban and rural areas' which became one of the major bases of ESD.

Approaches to Environmental education

Environmental education has multiple approaches that are based primarily on the benefits it brings to our society. One of the most important things to keep in mind when thinking about environmental education is communication. For there to be effective education, environmental information must be transmitted equally to citizens of all demographic groups. Critical, ethical and creative thinking must be developed in individuals when evaluating environmental issues. The development of skills and commitment to act independently and collaboratively in conjunction with society to address an environmental problem. Environmental education also has a broader approach which is that individuals are able to appreciate our surroundings and all the natural resources we have in order to develop positive environmental behavior that leads to change.

Central qualities of environmental education

There are a few central qualities involved in environmental education that are useful contributions for each individual. Through environmental education, real-world problem solving is enhanced, physical activity and dietary quality are strengthened, and communication and leadership are improved when working in groups.

Career Options in Environmental education

There are various different career paths one could delve into within environmental education. Many of these careers require discovering and planning how to resolve environmental issues occurring in today's world. The specific responsibilities associated with each career will depend in part on their physical location, taking into account what environmental issue is most prevalent in the area. A general outlook of some careers in this field are:

Federal Government Park Ranger- Responsible for protecting the national parks, historical sites, and national seashores across the United States including the wildlife and ecosystems within them. There are many qualifications in order for one to become a park ranger and some include: obtaining a bachelor's degree and a passing grade in the PEB. Some focuses within this field include: enforcing park rules, giving tours to groups for educational purposes, and protecting parks from forest fires.

Outdoor Education Teacher- Teach students by using outdoor field and classroom work. Some invite guest speakers who are experts in their field to help teach how the basic principles of science are implemented in the real world. Some requirements for this career include becoming CPR certified and having a bachelor's degree in either environmental science or a field related to it. It can be a problematic field as there is no concurrence on the central concepts that are taught as well as teachers do not agree on what constitutes an important environmental issue.

Environmental Scientist- Use of field work to research contamination in nature when writing plans in creating projects for environmental research. Environmental Scientists research topics such as air pollution, water quality, and wildlife. They also study how human health is affected by changes in the environment. Some requirements for this career are a bachelor's degree with a double major in environmental science and either biology, physics or chemistry.

Environmental Engineer- Involves the combination of biology/chemistry with engineering to generate ways to ensure the health of the planet. Scientific research is analyzed and projects are designed as a result of that research in order to come up with solutions to issues of the environment like air pollution. A bachelor's degree in civil engineering or general engineering is required as well as some experience in this field.

The roots of Environmental education

The roots of environmental education can be traced back as early as the 18th century when Jean-Jacques Rousseau stressed the importance of an education that focuses on the environment in Emile: or, On Education. Several decades later, Louis Agassiz, a Swiss-born naturalist, echoed Rousseau's philosophy as he encouraged students to "Study nature, not books." These two influential scholars helped lay the foundation for a concrete environmental education program, known as nature study, which took place in the late 19th and early 20th century.

The nature study movement used fables and moral lessons to help students develop an appreciation of nature and embrace the natural world. Anna Botsford Comstock, the head of the Department of Nature Study at Cornell University, was a prominent figure in the nature study movement. She wrote the Handbook for Nature Study in 1911 which used nature to educate children on cultural values. Comstock and the other leaders of the movement, such as Liberty Hyde Bailey, helped Nature Study garner tremendous amounts of support from community leaders, teachers, and scientists to change the science curriculum for children across the United States.

A new type of environmental education, Conservation Education, emerged in the US as a result of the Great Depression and Dust Bowl during the 1920s and 1930s. Conservation Education dealt with the natural world in a drastically different way from Nature Study because it focused on rigorous scientific training rather than natural history. Conservation Education was a major scientific management and planning tool that helped solve social, economic, and environmental problems during this time period.

The modern environmental education movement, which gained significant momentum in the late 1960s and early 1970s, stems from Nature Study and Conservation Education. During this time period, many events—such as the Cold War, the Civil rights movement and the Vietnam War—placed many Americans at odds with one another and the U.S. government. However, as more people began to fear the fallout from radiation, the chemical pesticides mentioned in Rachel Carson's Silent Spring, and the significant amounts of air pollution and waste, the public's concern for their health and the health of their natural environment led to a unifying phenomenon known as environmentalism. Environmental education was born of the realization that solving complex local and global problems cannot be accomplished by politicians and experts alone, but requires "the support and active participation of an informed public in their various roles as consumers, voters, employers, and business and community leaders." In 1960 the National Rural Studies Association (now known as the National Association for Environmental Education) was established in the UK to promote environmental education and support teachers in incorporating sustainability into their curricula.

Indian Rebellion of 1857 | The Expansion of the East India Company and Causes of the Revolt

The Indian Rebellion of 1857 was a major uprising against the rule of the British East India Company in India in 1857–58, which acted as the supreme power on behalf of the British Crown. The rebellion began on 10 May 1857 with a mutiny of Indian soldiers (Sepoys) of the Company at Meerut, 40 miles (64 km) northeast of Delhi. It later spread to the Gangetic Plain and parts of Central India, though there were also uprisings in the north and east. This rebellion posed a serious military threat to British power in the region, and it was not fully suppressed until the defeat of the rebels at Gwalior on 20 June 1858. On 1 November 1858, the British granted amnesty to all rebels not involved in murder, although they did not formally declare an end to hostilities until 8 July 1859.

The name of this rebellion is a matter of debate, and it has been called the Sepoy Mutiny, the Indian Mutiny, the Great Rebellion, the Revolt of 1857, and the First War of Independence.

The Expansion of the East India Company

Under the leadership of Robert Clive, the East India Company won the Battle of Plassey in 1757. The subsequent treaty granted the British the right to trade tax-free in Bengal. After winning the Battle of Buxar in 1764, the British gained complete control over Bengal. These two victories greatly enhanced British power and demonstrated that their military strength was superior to that of traditional Indian armies. The company soon expanded its territory around its bases in Bombay and Madras; later, the Anglo-Mysore Wars (1766-1799) and the Anglo-Maratha Wars (1772-1818) brought even larger parts of India under its control.

At the end of the 18th century, Governor-General Wellesley initiated a two-decade process of rapid expansion of the company's territories. This was achieved through subsidiary alliances with local rulers or through direct military annexation. Subsidiary alliances created princely states ruled by Hindu maharajas and Muslim nawabs. In 1843, the East India Company annexed Sindh after a bloody war. After the death of Maharaja Ranjit Singh in 1839, the weakened Sikh empire of Punjab came under British influence, and after the Second Anglo-Sikh War in 1849, Punjab, the North-West Frontier Province, and Kashmir were annexed. However, under the Treaty of Amritsar in 1846, Kashmir was immediately handed over to the Dogra dynasty of Jammu, becoming a princely state. In 1853, the title and annual pension of Nana Sahib, the adopted son of the last Maratha Peshwa, Baji Rao, were revoked. Berar was annexed in 1854 and Awadh in 1856.

Causes of the Revolt

The Revolt of 1857 was caused by several political, economic, religious, military, and social reasons.

Differences in Perspective

Many historians believe that the general public at that time thought that the British wanted to forcibly or deceptively convert them to Christianity. This was not entirely wrong; some Company officials did indeed promote conversions. However, the Company never officially sanctioned such conversions. The Company knew that religion could be a cause of rebellion in traditional Indian society. Earlier, in the 16th century, one reason for the decline of the Portuguese in India and Japan was their attempt to forcibly impose Christianity on the people.

Under Lord Dalhousie's Doctrine of Lapse, several states, such as Jhansi, Awadh, Satara, Nagpur, and Sambalpur, were annexed to British territory, and their rulers were made pensioners of the British government. The royal families, landlords, and soldiers became unemployed and powerless. They were ready to take revenge for the humiliation and loss of power inflicted by the British. During Lord Dalhousie's eight-year rule, the Company annexed ten million square miles of territory. Furthermore, many soldiers in the East India Company's Bengal Army were recruited from Awadh and were not unaware of the events happening there. The auction of the Nagpur royal family's jewels in Calcutta was seen as an insult to the royal family.

The Indians were also angered by the harsh rule of the Company, which was rapidly expanding and imposing Western culture. The British declared many customs prevalent among Hindus and Muslims at that time illegal, as they were considered undesirable by the British. This included the abolition of sati (widow burning). It is noteworthy that the Sikhs had already abolished this practice, and the famous social reformer of Bengal, Raja Ram Mohan Roy, was campaigning against it. These laws created resentment among certain sections of society, especially in Bengal. The British also abolished the practice of child marriage and banned female infanticide. They also abolished the practice of Thagi (religious banditry), though there is debate about whether Thagi was a religious cult or simply a group of common robbers.

Indians considered the British judicial system to be unjust. In 1853, the British Prime Minister, Lord Aberdeen, opened the civil service to Indians, but some educated Indians felt this reform was insufficient. Company officials had the right to appeal in many court cases against Indians. The Company imposed heavy taxes on Indians and confiscated their property if they failed to pay. Traditional Indian society viewed the Company's modernization efforts with suspicion. People considered the railway, which first started operating from Bombay, a dangerous invention that would bring disaster.

However, many historians believe these reforms were exaggerated, as the Company lacked the resources to implement them effectively, and their impact was negligible outside the area around Calcutta.

India's first prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru Biography | Jawaharlal Nehru's life

Jawaharlal Nehru (14 November 1889 – 27 May 1964) was India's first Prime Minister and a prominent figure in Indian politics both before and after independence. Under the guidance of Mahatma Gandhi, he emerged as a leading figure in the Indian independence movement and led India from its independence in 1947 until his death in 1964. As a Kashmiri Pandit, he was also known as Pandit Nehru, while Indian children affectionately called him Chacha Nehru (Uncle Nehru).

Nehru was chosen by the Congress Party to be the Prime Minister of independent India, although his leadership was effectively decided in 1941 when Gandhi designated him as his political heir and successor. As Prime Minister, he aimed to realize his vision for India. After the Indian Constitution came into effect in 1950, he launched an ambitious program of economic, social, and political reforms. Above all, by promoting a pluralistic, multi-party democracy, he transformed India from a colony into a republic. In foreign policy, he established India as a regional power in South Asia and played a leading role in the Non-Aligned Movement.

Under Nehru's leadership, the Congress Party emerged as a dominant force, winning elections consecutively in 1951, 1957, and 1962, and maintaining its grip on power at both national and state levels. Even in his later years, amidst political crises and following the 1962 Sino-Indian War, he 

remained popular with the Indian public.

Life

Jawaharlal Nehru was born in Allahabad. His father, Motilal Nehru (1861–1931), was a wealthy barrister and a Kashmiri Pandit. Motilal Nehru belonged to the Saraswat Kaul Brahmin community and was elected president of the Indian National Congress twice during the freedom struggle. His mother, Swarup Rani Thussu (1868–1938), came from a prominent Kashmiri Brahmin family in Lahore. She was Motilal's second wife; his first wife had died giving birth to a child. Jawaharlal was the eldest of three children; the other two were daughters. His elder sister, Vijaya Lakshmi, later became the first woman president of the United Nations General Assembly. His younger sister, Krishna Hutheesing, became a renowned writer and wrote several books about her family.

Jawaharlal Nehru received his education at some of the finest schools and universities in the world. He attended Harrow School and then Trinity College, Cambridge (London). He later obtained a law degree from Cambridge University. He spent seven years in England, during which time he developed a keen interest in Fabian socialism and Irish nationalism.

Jawaharlal Nehru returned to India in 1912 and began practicing law. In 1916, he married Kamala Nehru. In 1917, Jawaharlal Nehru joined the Home Rule League. His real political awakening came two years later, in 1919, when he came into contact with Mahatma Gandhi. At that time, Gandhi had launched a movement against the Rowlatt Act. Nehru was greatly influenced by Gandhi's active but peaceful non-cooperation movement.

Nehru also adapted his family to Gandhi's teachings. Jawaharlal and Motilal Nehru gave up Western clothes and expensive items. They began wearing khadi kurta and Gandhi caps. Jawaharlal Nehru actively participated in the Non-Cooperation Movement of 1920–1922 and was arrested for the first time during this period. He was released after a few months. Jawaharlal Nehru was elected as the president of the Allahabad Municipal Corporation in 1924 and served as the city's chief executive for two years. In 1926, he resigned citing a lack of cooperation from the British authorities.

From 1926 to 1928, Jawaharlal Nehru served as the General Secretary of the All India Congress Committee. In 1928-1929, the annual session of the Congress was held under the chairmanship of Motilal Nehru. At this session, Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose supported the demand for complete political independence, while Motilal Nehru and other leaders supported the demand for Dominion Status within the British Empire. To resolve this issue, Gandhi proposed a compromise: giving Britain two years to grant Dominion Status to India, and if they failed to do so, the Congress would launch a national movement for complete political independence. Nehru and Bose insisted that this period be reduced to one year. The British government did not respond.

In December 1929, the annual session of the Congress was held in Lahore, where Jawaharlal Nehru was elected as the President of the Congress Party. This session also passed a resolution demanding 'Purna Swaraj' (complete independence). On January 26, 1930, Jawaharlal Nehru hoisted the flag of independent India in Lahore. Gandhi also launched the Civil Disobedience Movement in 1930. This movement was quite successful and forced the British government to acknowledge the need for major political reforms.

When the British government implemented the Government of India Act of 1935, the Congress Party decided to contest the elections. Nehru himself did not contest the elections, but he campaigned vigorously for the party throughout the country. The Congress formed governments in almost every province and won a majority of seats in the Central Assembly.

Nehru was elected President of the Congress in 1936 and 1937. He was arrested during the Quit India Movement in 1942 and released in 1945. He played a crucial role in the negotiations with the British government for the independence of India and Pakistan in 1947.