Indian Rebellion of 1857 | The Expansion of the East India Company and Causes of the Revolt

The Indian Rebellion of 1857 was a major uprising against the rule of the British East India Company in India in 1857–58, which acted as the supreme power on behalf of the British Crown. The rebellion began on 10 May 1857 with a mutiny of Indian soldiers (Sepoys) of the Company at Meerut, 40 miles (64 km) northeast of Delhi. It later spread to the Gangetic Plain and parts of Central India, though there were also uprisings in the north and east. This rebellion posed a serious military threat to British power in the region, and it was not fully suppressed until the defeat of the rebels at Gwalior on 20 June 1858. On 1 November 1858, the British granted amnesty to all rebels not involved in murder, although they did not formally declare an end to hostilities until 8 July 1859.

The name of this rebellion is a matter of debate, and it has been called the Sepoy Mutiny, the Indian Mutiny, the Great Rebellion, the Revolt of 1857, and the First War of Independence.

The Expansion of the East India Company

Under the leadership of Robert Clive, the East India Company won the Battle of Plassey in 1757. The subsequent treaty granted the British the right to trade tax-free in Bengal. After winning the Battle of Buxar in 1764, the British gained complete control over Bengal. These two victories greatly enhanced British power and demonstrated that their military strength was superior to that of traditional Indian armies. The company soon expanded its territory around its bases in Bombay and Madras; later, the Anglo-Mysore Wars (1766-1799) and the Anglo-Maratha Wars (1772-1818) brought even larger parts of India under its control.

At the end of the 18th century, Governor-General Wellesley initiated a two-decade process of rapid expansion of the company's territories. This was achieved through subsidiary alliances with local rulers or through direct military annexation. Subsidiary alliances created princely states ruled by Hindu maharajas and Muslim nawabs. In 1843, the East India Company annexed Sindh after a bloody war. After the death of Maharaja Ranjit Singh in 1839, the weakened Sikh empire of Punjab came under British influence, and after the Second Anglo-Sikh War in 1849, Punjab, the North-West Frontier Province, and Kashmir were annexed. However, under the Treaty of Amritsar in 1846, Kashmir was immediately handed over to the Dogra dynasty of Jammu, becoming a princely state. In 1853, the title and annual pension of Nana Sahib, the adopted son of the last Maratha Peshwa, Baji Rao, were revoked. Berar was annexed in 1854 and Awadh in 1856.

Causes of the Revolt

The Revolt of 1857 was caused by several political, economic, religious, military, and social reasons.

Differences in Perspective

Many historians believe that the general public at that time thought that the British wanted to forcibly or deceptively convert them to Christianity. This was not entirely wrong; some Company officials did indeed promote conversions. However, the Company never officially sanctioned such conversions. The Company knew that religion could be a cause of rebellion in traditional Indian society. Earlier, in the 16th century, one reason for the decline of the Portuguese in India and Japan was their attempt to forcibly impose Christianity on the people.

Under Lord Dalhousie's Doctrine of Lapse, several states, such as Jhansi, Awadh, Satara, Nagpur, and Sambalpur, were annexed to British territory, and their rulers were made pensioners of the British government. The royal families, landlords, and soldiers became unemployed and powerless. They were ready to take revenge for the humiliation and loss of power inflicted by the British. During Lord Dalhousie's eight-year rule, the Company annexed ten million square miles of territory. Furthermore, many soldiers in the East India Company's Bengal Army were recruited from Awadh and were not unaware of the events happening there. The auction of the Nagpur royal family's jewels in Calcutta was seen as an insult to the royal family.

The Indians were also angered by the harsh rule of the Company, which was rapidly expanding and imposing Western culture. The British declared many customs prevalent among Hindus and Muslims at that time illegal, as they were considered undesirable by the British. This included the abolition of sati (widow burning). It is noteworthy that the Sikhs had already abolished this practice, and the famous social reformer of Bengal, Raja Ram Mohan Roy, was campaigning against it. These laws created resentment among certain sections of society, especially in Bengal. The British also abolished the practice of child marriage and banned female infanticide. They also abolished the practice of Thagi (religious banditry), though there is debate about whether Thagi was a religious cult or simply a group of common robbers.

Indians considered the British judicial system to be unjust. In 1853, the British Prime Minister, Lord Aberdeen, opened the civil service to Indians, but some educated Indians felt this reform was insufficient. Company officials had the right to appeal in many court cases against Indians. The Company imposed heavy taxes on Indians and confiscated their property if they failed to pay. Traditional Indian society viewed the Company's modernization efforts with suspicion. People considered the railway, which first started operating from Bombay, a dangerous invention that would bring disaster.

However, many historians believe these reforms were exaggerated, as the Company lacked the resources to implement them effectively, and their impact was negligible outside the area around Calcutta.