Agricultural Development in India | History of Indian Agriculture

 

Agriculture refers to crop production and animal husbandry. India's economy is based on agriculture. Agriculture has been practiced in India for approximately 10,000 years. That is why India is called an agricultural country. However, it is fair to say that real agricultural development in India began with the Green Revolution of the 1960s, led by Dr. M.S. Swaminathan. Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru and Dr. A.B. Joshi played a key role in bringing the Green Revolution to India. Since then, India has established a strong agricultural infrastructure, and today India has all the necessary technologies available.

History of Indian Agriculture

India has a rich agricultural tradition. Historians' research shows that even during the Indus Valley Civilization, agriculture was the backbone of India's economy.

During the Vedic period, sowing and harvesting were practiced. Tools such as plows, sickles, and sieves were used, and various grains such as wheat, rice, and barley were cultivated. Ancient India is also credited with establishing the tradition of increasing soil fertility through the system of cyclic fallow. According to Romesberg (the father of European botany), this system was later adopted in the Western world.

During research on the Indus Valley Civilization, excavations in Kantha have uncovered abundant evidence that agriculture was highly advanced approximately five thousand years ago. Revenue was paid in grain, a conclusion drawn by literary scholars and archaeologists based on the extensive granaries excavated at Mohenjo-daro. Furthermore, samples of wheat and barley recovered during excavations confirm their presence as staple crops at that time.

Kautilya's Arthashastra describes the appointment of agricultural officials to promote agriculture and agricultural production during the Mauryan period. The Greek traveler Megasthenes also wrote that the king appointed officials to ensure equitable distribution of water in the main canal and its branches, and to inspect rivers and wells.

Indian agriculture suffered the most adverse effects before India's independence. During this period, the Indian economy was exploited and fell prey to British self-interest, and its consequences were felt across all sectors. Indeed, this was a period of exploitation of the Indian agricultural sector, resulting in a worsening of agricultural conditions.

After independence, until the mid-1960s, agriculture in India used traditional seeds, which had relatively low yields and required less irrigation. Farmers used cow dung as fertilizer.

After 1960, the use of high-yield seeds (HYV) began. This increased the use of irrigation and chemical fertilizers and pesticides. This also increased the need for irrigation. This also led to a significant increase in wheat and rice production, which is why it is also called the Green Revolution.

Agricultural Equipment

In India, traditional agricultural tools such as hoes, pickaxes, sickles, and axes are used alongside modern machinery. Farmers use tractors for plowing, harvesters for harvesting, and threshers for threshing.

Irrigation in India

Irrigation in India refers to the supply of water for cultivation and agricultural activities from Indian rivers, ponds, wells, canals, and other artificial projects. In a country like India, 64% of arable land is monsoon-dependent. The economic importance of irrigation in India includes reducing volatility in production, improving agricultural productivity, reducing dependence on monsoons, bringing more land under cultivation, creating employment opportunities, increasing access to electricity and transportation, and controlling floods and droughts.

Agricultural Exports

India's agricultural exports have reached a historic high of $50 billion. Agricultural product exports for the year 2021-22 have crossed $50 billion. This is the highest agricultural product export ever. According to provisional data released by the Directorate General of Commercial Intelligence and Statistics, agricultural production increased by 19.92 percent to $50.21 billion during 2021-22.

This growth rate is impressive and exceeds the growth rate of 17.66 percent, i.e. $41.87 billion, in 2020-21. This achievement over the last two years will significantly contribute to realizing Prime Minister Narendra Modi's dream of improving farmers' incomes. This is the highest ever export of rice, wheat, sugar, and other grains. Wheat exports have registered an unprecedented increase of 273 percent.

Indus Valley Civilization | Etymology and The Extent of the Indus Valley Civilization.

The Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3300–1300 BCE) was a civilization of ancient India. The Indus Valley Civilization spanned the Indus River region of South Asia. Its early development (c. 7500–3300 BCE) occurred along the banks of the Indus and Ghaggar/Hakra rivers. Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Kalibangan, Lothal, Dholavira, and Rakhigarhi were its major centers. In 2014, Bhirdana was identified as the oldest city discovered in the Indus Valley Civilization, dating back to approximately 7500 to 6500 BCE. Based on excavations conducted during the British period, archaeologists and historians estimate that this was a highly developed civilization, with cities being settled and destroyed several times.

In the seventh century, when people were digging clay for bricks in the Punjab province, they found ready-made bricks, which they considered a miracle from God and used to build houses. Subsequently, in 1826, Charles Mason first discovered this ancient civilization. Cunningham surveyed the site in 1856. During the construction of the railway line between Karachi and Lahore in 1856, the Burton brothers reported the Harappa site to the government. Consequently, the Archaeological Survey of India was established in 1861 under the direction of Alexander Cunningham. In 1902, Lord Curzon appointed John Marshall as Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India. Fleet wrote an article about this ancient civilization. In 1921, Daya Ram Sahni excavated Harappa. Thus, the civilization was named the Harappan Civilization, and Rakhaldas Banerjee was credited with discovering Mohenjo-daro.

This civilization was spread across the Indus River valley, hence the name Indus Valley Civilization. It is also called the first urbanization because of the emergence of cities. It is also called the Bronze Age because of the first use of bronze. 1,400 centers of the Indus Valley Civilization have been discovered, of which 925 are in India. 80 percent of the sites are located around the Indus River and its tributaries. Only 3 percent of the total discovered sites have been excavated so far.

Etymology

The Indus Valley Civilization spanned a vast area. Sindhu was a civilization located along the banks of the Indus River. Due to variations in its geographical pronunciation, this Sindhu came to be called Sindhu, which later gave rise to the Hindu pronunciation for the people who lived there. Evidence of this civilization was found in the excavations at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro. Scholars therefore named it the Indus Valley Civilization, as these areas fell within the basin of the Indus and its tributaries. However, later, remains of this civilization were also found in Ropar, Lothal, Kalibangan, Banawali, and Rangpur, all of which lay outside the basin of the Indus and its tributaries. Therefore, many historians consider it more appropriate to call this civilization the "Harappan Civilization," since Harappa was its primary center, although the river itself is actually called the Indus.

The Extent of the Indus Valley Civilization

The territory of this civilization was many times larger and more extensive than any other ancient civilization in the world. The center of this civilization was in Punjab and Sindh. It subsequently expanded southward and eastward. Thus, the Harappan culture extended not only to parts of Punjab, Sindh, and Balochistan, but also to the border regions of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana, and western Uttar Pradesh. Its extent stretched from the banks of the Chenab River at Manda in the north to Daimabad (Maharashtra) in the south, and from Sutkagendor Pak in Sindh province, located on the Makran coast of Balochistan, in the west, to Hiranyakashipu, Meerut, and Kurukshetra in Alamgirpur in the northeast. The region's initial extent was triangular (from Manda in Jammu in the north to Bhogtar in Gujarat in the south, and from Sutkagendor in Afghanistan in the west to Meerut in Uttar Pradesh in the east), covering an area of ​​2,000,000 square kilometers. This area is not only larger than modern-day Pakistan, but also larger than ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. During the third and second millennia BC, no civilization in the world had a larger area than the Harappan culture. To date, a total of 1,500 sites of this culture have been discovered in the Indian subcontinent. Some of these sites are in the early stages, some in the mature stage, and some in the late stage.

Only a few sites are in the mature stage. Before the discovery of the Indus Valley Civilization, geologists and scholars believed that human civilization originated with the Aryans. But evidence from the Indus Valley dispelled their misconceptions, and they were forced to believe that ancient Indian civilization flourished long before the arrival of the Aryans. This civilization was named the Indus Valley Civilization or Indus Civilization. Only half a dozen of these sites can be considered cities. Two of these are extremely important: Harappa in Punjab and Mohenjo-daro (original pronunciation: Muenjo-daro, literally "mound of ghosts") in Sindh. Both sites are in present-day Pakistan, 483 kilometers apart, and are connected by the Indus River. The third city was located at Chanhu-daro, 130 kilometers south of Mohenjo-daro, and the fourth was at Lothal on the Gulf of Khambhat in Gujarat. Additionally, Kalibangan (literally "black bangles") in northern Rajasthan and Banawali in the Hisar district of Haryana are located. All these sites reflect a mature and advanced Harappan culture. The coastal cities of Sutkagendor and Surkotada also represent a mature phase of this culture. Both are characterized by the presence of a city citadel. Remains of the Late Harappan period have also been found at Rangpur and Rojdi in the Kathiawar peninsula of Gujarat. Charles Mason first discovered this civilization in 1826.

Town Planning

The most distinctive feature of this civilization was its developed town planning. Both Harappa and Mohenjo-daro had their own citadels, where the ruling families lived. Outside the citadel of each city was a lower town where the common people lived in brick houses. A distinctive feature of these urban buildings was that they were built in a grid-like manner. Streets intersected each other at right angles, dividing the city into numerous rectangular sections. This was true of all Indus settlements, whether large or small. The buildings of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro were massive. The monuments there bear witness to the mastery of their rulers' labor and tax collection. Even the common people admired their power and prestige upon seeing these massive brick buildings.

Mohenjo-daro's most famous site is the Great Public Bath, whose reservoir is located within the citadel mound. It is a beautiful example of brick architecture. It is 11.88 meters long, 7.01 meters wide, and 2.43 meters deep. Stairs lead down at both ends. Adjacent to this are changing rooms. The bathroom floor is made of baked bricks. A nearby room houses a large well, from which water was drawn and poured into a pipe. The pipe has a vent at the corner, allowing water to flow into a drain. This massive bath is believed to have been built for ritual bathing, traditionally essential for religious ceremonies in India. The largest structure at Mohenjo-daro is the granary, measuring 45.71 meters long and 15.23 meters wide. Six granaries have been found within the Harappan citadel, built in two rows on a brick platform. Each granary is 15.23 meters long and 6.09 meters wide and is located a few meters from the river bank. The floor area of ​​these twelve units is approximately 838.125 square meters, approximately equal to the granary at Mohenjo-daro. To the south of the Harappan granaries is an open floor, on which circular brick platforms are built in two rows. Wheat and barley grains have been found in cracks in the floor, suggesting that crops were threshed on these platforms. Two-room barracks have also been found in Harappa, likely for laborers. At Kalibangan, brick platforms have been found in the southern part of the city, likely for granaries. Thus, it is clear that granaries were an integral part of Harappan culture.

The use of bricks in Harappan cities is unique, as Egyptian buildings of the same period used only sun-dried bricks. The use of baked bricks is also evident in contemporary Mesopotamia, but not on the same scale as the Indus Valley Civilization. Mohenjo-daro's drainage system was remarkable. Almost every house, whether large or small, had a courtyard and a bathroom. Water from the houses flowed onto the streets, where drains were built beneath them. These drains were often covered with bricks and stone slabs. These drains also had manholes. Remains of roads and drains have also been found in Banawali.

 

Mohenjo-daro Civilization | History of the Mohenjo-daro Civilization

 

Mohenjo-daro is an archaeological site located in the Sindh province of ancient India. Numerous remains of the Indus Valley Civilization have been found here.

Mohenjo-Daro Civilization

The word "Mohenjo-Daro" is derived from the Sindhi language, and its correct pronunciation is "Muan-jo-Daro." It literally means "mound of burials." It is considered the world's oldest planned and most developed city. It is the most advanced city of the Indus Valley Civilization. The remains of this city are located on the banks of the Indus River in Sukkur district. It was discovered by Rakhaldas Banerjee in 1922. Excavations began under the direction of John Marshall, Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India. A large number of buildings, metal statues, and seals were discovered during the excavations. In the last 100 years, only one-third of the city has been excavated, and that has now ceased. It is believed that the city covered an area of ​​125 hectares and also had a reservoir.

History of the Mohenjo-daro Civilization

Mohenjo-daro was the center of the ancient civilization of the Indus Valley. It is located twenty kilometers from Ladkana and 80 kilometers southwest of Sukkur. It is 400 miles from Harappa, another important center in the Indus Valley. The city existed around 2600 BCE and disappeared for unknown reasons around 1700 BCE. However, experts believe that changes in the course of the Indus River, floods, external invasions, or earthquakes may have been the main causes.

Mohenjo-daro was discovered in 1922 by British archaeologist Sir John Marshall, and its remains remain a feature of the Mohenjo-daro Museum. However, there is also a school of thought that disputes this interpretation and claims that it was discovered in 1911 by R.K. Bhinder, an expert on antiquities in secular India. Hakim Shah Bukhari, former director of the Mohenjo-daro Conservation Cell, says, "R.K. Bhinder drew attention to the site's historical significance as a sacred Buddhist site. About an ashra later, Sir John Marshall visited the site and began excavations. The city was well-organized. Its streets were open and straight, with proper drainage. It is estimated that about 35,000 people lived there. Experts estimate that the city was destroyed and resettled seven times, the most significant of which was by the floods of the Indus River. The world's first bathhouse, known as the Great Bath, was found here. The city is a World Heritage Site under the auspices of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).

Features of Mohenjo-Daro

The beauty of Mohenjo-Daro is that you can still wander the streets and lanes of this ancient city. Artifacts of its civilization and culture adorn museums, but the city remains where it once was. Its walls still stand strong, and you can relax here. Despite its ruins, you can suddenly feel a sense of peace as you step onto the threshold of a house, or smell a fragrance while standing at a kitchen window. Or you can hear the tinkling sound of a bullock cart on a deserted city street, or the color of the soil you may have seen in archaeological photographs. It's true that the broken steps in the courtyard no longer lead you anywhere; they are incomplete, reaching the sky. But standing on those incomplete steps, it feels like you're on the roof of the world; from there, you're looking not at history, but at its present. This city is said to be India's oldest historical site.

Famous Pond

In Mohenjo-daro's Divinity Lane, located in a lane called Divinity Lane, is the famous pond, approximately forty feet long, twenty-five feet wide, and seven feet deep. Stairs descend into the pond from the north and south. Rooms are built on three sides of the pond. Eight bathrooms are located on the north side. The pond was constructed with great care, as none of its doors faces another. The bricks are exceptionally strong. To prevent impure water from entering the pond, lime and chirodi mortar were used between the bricks on the bottom and walls. The walls are paved with asphalt. A double-circular well was built to supply water to the pond. Drains made of baked bricks were also built to drain the water from the pond, and, importantly, it is covered with baked bricks. This proves that despite being so ancient, the people here were in no way inferior to us. Overall, the Indus Valley was characterized by its baked bricks and covered drains, and its well-organized drainage system was unmatched in earlier recorded history.

Agriculture at Mohenjo-daro

Excavations have also revealed the existence of an agricultural and pastoral civilization. Tools made of stone from Sindh and copper from Rajasthan were used for farming. According to historian Irfan Habib, the people here cultivated the Rabi crop. Excavations have revealed strong evidence of the cultivation of wheat, mustard, cotton, barley, and gram. It is believed that many other crops were also grown here; seeds of all but cotton have been found. A sample of one of the world's two oldest cotton fabrics was found here. Excavations have also uncovered a textile dyeing factory.

Town Planning

The buildings of Mohenjo-daro may have fallen into ruins, but these ruins are enough to illustrate the vastness of the city's streets and lanes. The streets follow a grid plan, meaning they are crisscrossed.

The eastern settlements are considered "elite settlements" because they feature large houses, wide roads, and numerous wells. The streets of Mohenjo-daro are so wide that two bullock carts can easily pass through them. Houses are on both sides of the road. Interestingly, only the backs of the houses face the road, meaning the doors face the inner lanes. In fact, Mohenjo-daro is commendable from a health perspective because, despite being so far behind us, its town planning system is remarkable. Historians say that Mohenjo-daro was the first culture of the Indus Valley Civilization to obtain groundwater by digging wells. Mohenjo-daro had approximately 700 wells. Looking at its unmatched drainage system, wells, ponds and rivers, we can say that the Mohenjodaro civilization was truly a water culture.

Mohenjo-Daro Museum

The Mohenjo-Daro Museum is small. Its main collections are located in Karachi, Lahore, Delhi, and London. It houses black wheat, copper and bronze vessels, seals, musical instruments, large pottery carved on a wheel and painted black and brown, chess pieces, lamps, scales, a copper mirror, a clay bullock cart and other toys, a two-stone mill, combs, clay bracelets, necklaces with colorful stone beads, and stone tools. According to Ali Nawaz, who works at the museum, some gold jewelry was once found here, but was stolen.

A special feature of this museum is that it contains tools, but no weapons. Through this research, scholars are trying to understand the governance and social management practices of the Indus Valley Civilization. Discipline was certainly there, but not by force, but by intelligence.

The museum also includes some needles. Numerous copper and bronze needles were found during the excavation. Kashinath Dixit found three gold needles, one of which was two inches long. These are believed to have been used for intricate embroidery. In addition to these needles, ivory and copper needles were also found during the excavation.

An important Satyagraha in the life of Mahatma Gandhi: Champaran Satyagraha

 

In 1917, Mahatma Gandhi led a movement in the Champaran district of Bihar, known as the Champaran Satyagraha. This was Gandhi's first satyagraha in India.

Background to the Champaran Satyagraha

Mahatma Gandhi attended the Lucknow session of the Congress in December 1916. On this occasion, he met a man who would change the course of his political career: Rajkumar Shukla. This simple but determined man told him about the suffering of the peasants in his region and their exploitation by the British, and urged him to end it.

Gandhiji was not impressed by Rajkumar Shukla at first meeting, and therefore refused him. However, Shukla met him repeatedly and persuaded him to accept his request. As a result, within four months, the peasants of Champaran were permanently freed from the forced cultivation of indigo on 15% of their land. Gandhiji was not confident of such quick success. Thus, Gandhi's connection with Bihar and Champaran was forever linked.

The Champaran peasant movement took place in April 1917. It was on the soil of Champaran that Gandhiji first employed his proven weapons of Satyagraha and non-violence in India, which he had practiced in South Africa. It was here that he resolved that from then on, he would live his life wearing only one garment. It was after this movement that he was awarded the title of "Mahatma." This movement also gave the country such great figures as Rajendra Prasad, Acharya Kripalani, Mazharul Haq, and Brijkishore Prasad.

In the twelfth chapter of the fifth part of his autobiography, "Experiments with Truth," titled "The Stain of Indigo," Gandhiji writes, "Before going to the Lucknow session, I did not even know the name of Champaran. I had no knowledge of indigo cultivation. I was unaware of the suffering that thousands of farmers had to endure because of it." He further writes, "Rajkumar Shukla, a farmer from Champaran, followed me there. He kept following me and inviting me to his place, saying that he would tell everything to Vakil Babu (Brijkishore Prasad, who was a famous lawyer of Bihar at that time and father-in-law of Jayaprakash Narayan)."

But Mahatma Gandhi told Rajkumar Shukla not to follow him for the time being. At this session, Brijkishore Prasad spoke on the plight of Champaran, after which the Congress passed a resolution. Still, Rajkumar Shukla did not relent and insisted on taking Gandhi to Champaran. Gandhi reluctantly replied, "I will include Champaran in my tour and stay there for a day or two to see the situation for myself. I cannot express my opinion on this matter without seeing it."

Gandhi then went to Kanpur, but Shukla remained adamant. He said, "Champaran is very close. Please give me a day." Gandhi replied, "Forgive me now, but I will definitely go there." Gandhi writes that he felt bound by this.

Still, the stubborn farmer persisted. He reached his ashram in Ahmedabad and insisted on setting a date for his departure. Gandhi could not resist. He announced his departure for Calcutta on April 7th. He requested Rajkumar Shukla to come and welcome him. Shukla had already set up camp there before Gandhiji arrived in Calcutta on April 7, 1917. Gandhiji wrote, "This illiterate, unsophisticated, but determined peasant has won me over."

Gandhiji's First Visit to Patna and the Champaran Movement

Champaran is located in the northwestern region of Bihar. It borders Nepal. At that time, the British had implemented a law requiring farmers to cultivate indigo on every bigha (three katthas) of land. Indigo was cultivated throughout the country, except in Bengal. Farmers received nothing in return for their labor and were subjected to 42 extraordinary taxes. Rajkumar Shukla was a prosperous farmer in that region. He strongly opposed this system of exploitation, resulting in repeated flogging and torture by the British. When his efforts failed, he decided to go to the Lucknow Congress to invite Bal Gangadhar Tilak. However, upon his arrival, he received a suggestion to include Gandhiji, and he considered it.

Finally, Gandhiji agreed, and on April 10, the two arrived in Patna from Calcutta. He writes, "On the way, I realized that this gentleman was a very simple man and that I would have to proceed in my own way." After Patna, the two arrived in Muzaffarpur the next day. There, the next morning, they were welcomed by J.B. Kripalani, a professor at Muzaffarpur University and later president of the Congress Party, and his students. Shukla left Gandhi there and left for Champaran to complete all preparations before departure. It was in Muzaffarpur that Rajendra Prasad first met Gandhi. It was here, with the support of several prominent lawyers and social activists in the state, that they finalized their future strategy.

Subsequently, despite the Commissioner's refusal to grant permission, Mahatma Gandhi entered Champaran on April 15. He received the unwavering support of many farmers, including Rajkumar Shukla. Statements from the affected farmers were recorded. The struggle was fought nonviolently, without direct support from the Congress. It was widely covered in local newspapers, garnering widespread public support for the movement. As a result, the British government was forced to yield. Indigo cultivation, which had been prevalent for the past 135 years, gradually ceased. The exploitation of indigo farmers also ended forever.

Bardoli Satyagraha: A nationalist movement in India | Bardoli Satyagraha Movement, Resolution and Commemoration

 

The Bardoli Satyagraha was a peasant movement and nationalist protest in India. It was a protest against the increased taxes imposed on farmers by the colonial government, specifically demanding the rollback of a 22% tax hike in the Bombay Presidency. The movement began on February 12, 1928, and concluded successfully in August of the same year. It was ultimately led by Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, and its success established him as one of the key leaders of the Indian independence movement.

Background of the Bardoli Satyagraha

In 1926, the Bardoli taluk in Surat district of Gujarat was facing an economic crisis. That year, the Bombay Presidency government increased the tax rate by 30%. Despite appeals from local groups, the government refused to roll back the tax increase and ignored the people's grievances. The farmers' situation was so dire that they barely had enough property and crops left to pay the taxes, let alone support their families.

Exploring Options for the Bardoli Satyagraha

Gujarati activists Narhari Parikh, Ravishankar Vyas, and Mohanlal Pandya met with village leaders and farmers, seeking support from Vallabhbhai Patel, one of Gujarat's most prominent freedom fighters. Patel had led the peasants of Gujarat during the Kheda Satyagraha and had recently served as the mayor of Ahmedabad. He was held in high esteem by the people of the state.

Patel told a delegation of farmers that they should fully understand the implications of rebellion. He would not lead them until there was consensus and understanding across all the villages. Failure to pay taxes could result in the confiscation of their property, including their land, and many could be sent to jail. They could face total ruin. The villagers replied that they were prepared for even the worst outcome, but they could not tolerate the government's unjust actions.

Patel then asked Gandhi to consider the matter, but Gandhi only sought Patel's opinion, and when Patel outlined the way forward with complete confidence, he gave his blessing. However, Gandhi and Patel agreed that neither the Congress nor Gandhi would be directly involved; the movement would be entirely in the hands of the people of Bardoli Taluk.

Bardoli Satyagraha Movement

On February 6, Patel first wrote a letter to the Governor of Bombay, requesting a reduction in the tax for that year, given the hardships faced by the people. However, the Governor ignored the letter and announced the date for tax collection.

Thereafter, Patel instructed all the farmers of the Bardoli taluk to refuse to pay the tax. With the help of Narhari Parikh, Ravishankar Vyas, and Mohanlal Pandya, he divided Bardoli into several zones, appointing a leader and volunteers in each zone. Patel also deployed some active workers close to the government to keep track of the activities of government officials.

Most importantly, Patel instructed the farmers to remain completely non-violent and not to react physically to any provocation or violent action by the authorities. He assured them that the movement would continue until all the taxes for that year were waived and all confiscated property and land were returned to their rightful owners.

                                                                                   

                                                                                                    

The people of Gujarat fully supported the farmers. Many farmers hid their valuables with relatives in other areas, and the protesters received financial aid and essential supplies from other regions. However, Patel did not allow any sympathetic demonstrations by enthusiastic supporters in Gujarat or other parts of the country.

The government declared that it would crush this rebellion. Along with tax collectors, some Pathans from northwest India were also brought in to seize the villagers' property and intimidate them. The Pathans and tax collectors forcibly entered houses and looted all property, including livestock (the protesters kept their animals inside their houses when the tax collectors came, so they couldn't take the animals from the fields).

The government started auctioning the houses and land, but no one from Gujarat or any other part of the country came forward to buy them. Patel had appointed volunteers to monitor each village. As soon as the volunteers learned that the officials were coming to auction the property, they would blow conch shells. The farmers would then leave the village and hide in the forest. They never knew which house belonged to whom.

But some wealthy people from Bombay came to buy some land. Even a village that had paid its taxes was targeted. Those who did not participate in the tax boycott or bought confiscated land were ostracized by the community; relatives severed all ties with the families in the village. Other forms of social sanctions against such landlords included refusing to rent their land or work for them. Members of the Legislative Council in Bombay and across India were outraged by the brutal treatment of the protesting peasants. Indian members resigned from their posts and openly expressed their support for the farmers.

Resolution

In 1928, a Parsi member of the Bombay Government finally brokered a settlement. An agreement was reached to return confiscated lands and properties, to waive land revenue for that year, and to defer the 22% tax hike until the following year. The government had appointed the Maxwell-Broomfield Commission to investigate the matter. Following a detailed survey, it was decided to reduce the tax increase to a mere 6.03%. However, the farmers' fundamental problems remained unresolved, and bonded labor persisted.

The farmers celebrated their victory, but Patel continued to work to ensure that all lands and properties were returned to every farmer, so that no one would be left deprived. When the government refused to ask those who had purchased some of the lands to return them, several wealthy sympathizers from Bombay stepped forward to buy those lands and hand them back to their original owners.

Commemoration

The momentum gained from the victory in Bardo li helped revitalize the freedom struggle across the entire country. In 1930, the Congress declared India's independence, and Gandhiji launched the 'Salt Satyagraha.'

Patel attributed this victory to Gandhiji's teachings and the unwavering resolve of the farmers, while people across the nation lauded his decisive leadership. It was the women of Bardo li who first bestowed upon him the title of 'Sardar'—a word that signifies 'chief' or 'leader' in Gujarati and most other Indian languages. It was in the wake of the events in Bardo li that Sardar Patel emerged as one of India's most prominent leaders.

Simon Commission: Indian Statutory Commission | Background of the Simon Commission and The Outcome of the Simon Commission

The Indian Statutory Commission, also known as the Simon Commission, was a group of seven members of the British Parliament, chaired by John Simon. This commission came to the Indian subcontinent in 1928 to study constitutional reforms in British India. One of its members was Clement Attlee, who later became the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (1945-1951).

Background of the Simon Commission

This commission was formed because in 1919, when the British government implemented the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms, they announced that a commission would be sent to India after ten years to examine the impact and functioning of the constitutional reforms and to advise on further reforms.

The Muslim League and the Indian National Congress, along with prominent Indian leaders such as Nehru, Gandhi, and Jinnah, strongly opposed this commission because all its members were British, and there were no Indian members. However, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, Periyar E.V. Ramasamy, and Chaudhry Rahmat Ali supported it.

The prominent Indian nationalist Lala Lajpat Rai led the protests against this commission in Lahore. During the protests, the police brutally assaulted him, and he died 18 days later on November 17, 1928.

The Government of India Act of 1919 introduced the system of dual government for governing the provinces of British India. Public opinion in India demanded changes to this system of governance, and the 1919 Government of India Act stipulated that a commission would be appointed after ten years to examine the progress of the government's scheme and suggest new measures for improvement. The Secretary of State for India, F.E. Smith, feared that the Conservative Party in power might lose the election to the Labour Party, and therefore he feared that party members and supporters would be appointed to the commission. Consequently, the commission was hastily appointed, comprising seven members of Parliament to examine the status of the Indian constitution. He also ensured that there were no Indians on the commission, as he believed that Labour MPs and Indian members would vote together. The Viceroy of India, Lord Irwin, also supported the decision to exclude Indians, as he too believed they would vote together with the Labour MPs.

In India, some people were outraged and insulted by the fact that the Simon Commission, which was to determine India's future, had no Indian members. The Indian National Congress passed a resolution at its meeting in Madras (now Chennai) in December 1927 to boycott the commission and challenged the Secretary of State for India, Lord Birkenhead, to draft a constitution acceptable to Indians.

In view of the Congress's opposition, F.E. Smith sought to publicize the commission's meetings with "representative Muslims" in order to "instill in the large Hindu population the fear that the commission was dominated by Muslims and might produce a report highly detrimental to Hindus."

However, opinions were divided; some members of the Muslim League, as well as members of the Hindu Mahasabha and the Central Sikh League, supported cooperation. The Indian Council formed an All-India Committee for cooperation with the Simon Commission, and the Viceroy, Lord Irwin, selected its members. The committee members were: C. S. Naicker (Chairman), Arthur Frum, Nawab Ali Khan, Shivdev Singh Uberoi, Zulfiqar Ali Khan, Hari Singh Gour, Abdullah Al-Mamoon Suhrawardy, Kikabhai Premchand, and Prof. M.C. Raja.

In Burma (now Myanmar), which was also under the purview of the Simon Commission, there were fears that the Burmese union with India would continue, or that the constitution suggested for Burma by the commission would be less liberal than the one chosen for India; these fears led to tension and violence in Burma, culminating in the Saya San Rebellion.

The commission found that untouchables were being denied education and subjected to ill-treatment on the basis of caste.

Lala Lajpat Rai's Opposition to the Simon Commission and His Death

The Simon Commission left England in January 1928. Upon its arrival in Bombay on February 3, 1928, its members were greeted by a large crowd of protesters, although some in the crowd considered it a step towards self-rule. A strike was declared, and many people joined the march, carrying black flags and shouting "Simon, go back!" In Patna, the protests against the Simon Commission were led by M.A. Azazi. Similar protests took place in every major city in India visited by the seven British MPs.

One protest against the Simon Commission became particularly famous. On October 30, 1928, the commission arrived in Lahore, where protesters waving black flags greeted them. This protest was led by the Indian nationalist Lala Lajpat Rai, who had introduced a resolution against the commission in the Punjab Legislative Council in February 1928. The protesters blocked the road to prevent the commission members from leaving the railway station. To clear the way for the commission, the local police, led by Superintendent James Scott, started lathi-charging the protesters. Lala Lajpat Rai was seriously injured, and he died from his head injuries on November 17, 1928.

The Outcome of the Simon Commission

In September 1928—even before the Commission's report was released—Motilal Nehru presented his 'Nehru Report.' Its objective was to counter the allegations that Indians were incapable of reaching a constitutional consensus among themselves. The report proposed that India be granted 'Dominion Status,' thereby empowering it with full self-governance in its internal affairs. Jinnah denounced the report as a "Hindu document" and, in response to the Nehru Report, presented his "Fourteen Points." These Fourteen Points encapsulated the minimum demands of the Muslim community within the context of British rule.

By the time this report was published, the significance of the Commission had already diminished—a consequence of an announcement made on October 31, 1929, by the Viceroy of India, Lord Irwin. This declaration offered a new interpretation of the 1917 Declaration (which had served as the basis for implementing the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms). According to this interpretation, the ultimate policy objective of the British government had always been to grant India 'Dominion Status.' He also proposed convening a 'Round Table Conference' in London to deliberate on this matter. Although this declaration remained a contentious issue among many conservative leaders in London, it did not, in reality, bring about any concrete change in British policy; for the promise itself was highly vague, and its fulfillment remained a distant prospect.

The 'Government of India Act, 1935' was a direct outcome of the Simon Commission. While this Act provided for the establishment of a "responsible" government at the provincial level in India, it made no such provision at the national level—that is, a government accountable not to London, but to the Indian people. This very Act serves as the foundation for numerous provisions of the Indian Constitution. In 1937, the first elections were held in the provinces, resulting in the formation of Congress governments in almost all of them. Clement Attlee was deeply influenced by his experience working on the Commission and supported its final report. However, by 1933, he had begun to argue that British rule was an external system for India and was incapable of implementing the social and economic reforms necessary for the country's progress. He emerged as a prominent British statesman advocating for Indian independence (as a 'Dominion'). This experience prepared him for his future role, in 1947, of making the decisions regarding India's independence as the British Prime Minister.

Quit India Movement: India's fight for freedom | World War II and India's Involvement, The Cripps Mission

 

The Quit India Movement was a movement launched by Mahatma Gandhi on August 8, 1942, during World War II, at the Bombay session of the All India Congress Committee. This movement demanded the end of British rule in India. Following the failure of the British government to secure Indian support for the war effort through the Cripps Mission, Gandhi delivered his 'Do or Die' speech at the Gwalior Tank Maidan in Bombay on August 8, 1942. Viceroy Linlithgow described this movement as the most serious rebellion since 1857.

The All India Congress Committee decided to launch a large-scale non-cooperation movement across the country. Gandhi demanded the 'withdrawal of British forces from India'. Despite the war, Britain was prepared to take action. Within hours of Gandhi's speech, almost all the leaders of the Indian National Congress were arrested without trial. Most spent the rest of the war in prison, cut off from the public. The British government had the support of the Viceroy's Council, the All India Muslim League, the Hindu Mahasabha, the princely states, the Indian Imperial Police, the British Indian Army, and the Indian Civil Service. Many Indian businessmen, who were profiting from the huge war expenditure, did not support the Quit India Movement. Significant support also came from America, where President Franklin D. Roosevelt pressured Prime Minister Winston Churchill to concede some Indian demands.

The movement involved boycotting the British government and refusing to cooperate with them. Numerous violent incidents against British rule occurred across the country. The British government arrested thousands of leaders and imprisoned them until 1945.  Ultimately, the British government realized that ruling India forever was impossible, and the post-war issue became how to withdraw peacefully and with dignity.

The movement ended with the release of the freedom fighters in 1945.  Among the martyrs of this freedom movement were Mukund Kakati, Matangini Hazra, Kanaklata Barua, Kushal Konwar, Bhogeswari Phukanani, and others. In 1992, the Reserve Bank of India issued a commemorative 1-rupee coin to mark the golden jubilee of the Quit India Movement.

World War II and India's Involvement

In 1939, Indian nationalist leaders were angered that the British Governor-General of India, Lord Linlithgow, had dragged India into the war without consulting them.

When the war began, the Congress Party passed a resolution at its Working Committee meeting in Wardha in September 1939, offering conditional support to the fight against the Axis powers, but only on the condition that their demand for independence be granted:

“If the issue is democracy and a world order based on democracy, then India has a deep interest in it. If Great Britain fights to maintain and spread democracy, it must necessarily abolish imperialism in its territories and establish full democracy in India, granting the Indian people the right of self-determination.”

Gandhi did not support this initiative, as he fundamentally disagreed with the very idea of ​​supporting the war (he firmly believed in nonviolent resistance, which had been used in the Indian independence movement, and he supported it against Adolf Hitler, Benito Mussolini, and Hideki Tojo). However, at the height of the British struggle, Gandhi expressed his support for the fight against racism and the British war effort, stating that they did not want to build a free India from the ashes of Britain. However, opinions were divided. Due to the British policy of limiting investment in India and using the country as a market and source of revenue, the Indian army was relatively weak, poorly equipped, and poorly trained, and the British government was forced to contribute to the Indian budget, while taxes were increased dramatically and the cost of living doubled. While some Indian businesses benefited from increased production during the war, businesses generally felt "disrespected" by the government, especially by the British Raj's refusal to give Indians a greater role in organizing and mobilizing the economy for wartime production. Subhas Chandra Bose commented that "the Quit India Movement opened a new chapter in the Indian freedom struggle." After the outbreak of World War II, Bose formed the Indian Legion in Germany, reorganized the Indian National Army with Japanese support, and launched a guerrilla war against the British authorities, seeking assistance from the Axis powers. The Viceroy, Lord Linlithgow, described this movement as "the most serious rebellion since 1857." In a telegram to Winston Churchill on August 31, he wrote:

" Mob violence is common in large areas of the countryside, and I am quite certain that in September we will see a major attempt to disrupt our war effort once again. The lives of Europeans in remote areas are in danger."

                                                                                     

                                                                                        

When the American Republican presidential candidate Wendell Willkie and YMCA official Sherwood Eddy planned to meet Gandhi, Linlithgow considered it American interference in "our affairs" and asked Churchill to stop them. Indian nationalists knew that the United States supported Indian independence in principle and considered itself an ally. But when Churchill threatened to resign if there was too much pressure, the United States quietly supported him and launched a propaganda campaign against the Indians to boost public support for the war effort. This poorly executed American campaign further alienated the Indians.

The Cripps Mission

In March 1942, amidst growing discontent among Indian soldiers and the general public, and with the war effort in Europe faltering, the British government sent a delegation to India led by Stafford Cripps, the leader of the House of Commons. This mission, known as the Cripps Mission, aimed to secure the full cooperation of the Indian National Congress during the war, in return for transferring and distributing power from the Crown and Viceroy to an elected Indian legislature. The negotiations failed because the Congress's key demands—a timeline for self-government and the specific powers to be transferred—were not addressed.

Factors Contributing to the Outbreak of the Movement

In 1939, with the outbreak of war between Germany and Britain, India—which was a part of the British Empire—also became involved in the conflict. Had a sufficient number of Indian princely states agreed to form a federal government under the terms of the 1935 Act, the Viceroy would not have been able to take the unilateral decision to declare war on India's behalf. Following this declaration, the Congress Working Committee passed a resolution during its meeting on October 10, 1939, condemning the aggressive activities of the Germans. Furthermore, the resolution stated that India could not participate in the war unless it was consulted beforehand. In response to this declaration, the Viceroy issued a statement on October 17, in which he emphasized that Britain was fighting this war with the objective of strengthening peace in the world. He also stated that, after the war, the government would amend the 1935 Act in accordance with the wishes of the Indian people.

Gandhi's reaction to this statement was: "The old 'divide and rule' policy will continue. The Congress asked for bread and received a stone." In accordance with the instructions issued by the High Command, Congress ministers were directed to resign immediately. Complying with these directives, Congress ministers in eight provinces tendered their resignations. The resignation of the ministers proved to be an occasion of great joy and celebration for the leader of the Muslim League, Muhammad Ali Jinnah. He declared this date—December 22, 1939—as the 'Day of Deliverance.' Gandhi urged Jinnah not to celebrate this day, but his appeal proved futile. During the Muslim League session held in Lahore in March 1940, Jinnah declared in his presidential address that the Muslims of the country desired a separate electorate—namely, Pakistan.

Meanwhile, significant political developments unfolded in England. Churchill succeeded Chamberlain as Prime Minister. This meant that the Marquis of Zed land—who had played a pivotal role in securing the passage of the 1935 Act (a measure with which Churchill was deeply dissatisfied)—resigned from his post as the Secretary of State for India. Amidst the deteriorating war situation, and with the objective of appeasing the Indian public, the Conservative Party found itself compelled to concede to certain demands put forth by the Indians. On August 8, the Viceroy issued a statement that subsequently came to be known as the "August Offer." However, the Congress rejected this proposal, and subsequently, the Muslim League also turned it down.

Amidst the atmosphere of widespread discontent arising from the rejection of the Congress's demands, Gandhiji presented his plan to launch a 'Individual Civil Disobedience Movement' during a meeting of the Congress Working Committee held in Wardha. Once again, regarding Satyagraha as the most effective weapon for waging a struggle against the British, the people embraced it wholeheartedly. This weapon was employed on a massive scale to protest against the obstinate attitude of the British. Gandhiji's disciple, Vinoba Behave, was chosen to initiate this movement. Anti-war speeches began to reverberate across every corner of the country; Satyagrahis issued fervent appeals to the public not to cooperate with the government in its war-related endeavors. As a result of this Satyagraha campaign, approximately fourteen thousand Satyagrahis were arrested. On December 3, 1941, the Viceroy ordered the release of all Satyagrahis. Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, the war situation became even more critical, and the Congress felt the need to re-evaluate its agenda. Consequently, the movement was withdrawn.

The arrival of the 'Cripps Mission' in March 1942—and its subsequent failure—also played a pivotal role in Gandhiji's call for the 'Quit India Movement.' With the objective of resolving the political deadlock, the British government dispatched Sir Stafford Cripps to India on March 22, 1942, to engage in negotiations with Indian political parties and secure their support for Britain's war efforts. A draft declaration was presented on behalf of the British government, containing proposals such as the granting of 'Dominion' status, the formation of a 'Constituent Assembly,' and the right for provinces to frame their own separate constitutions. However, these proposals were to be implemented only after the conclusion of the Second World War. According to the Congress, this declaration offered India but a single promise—a promise that was to be fulfilled at some future date. Commenting on this, Gandhiji remarked, "This is a 'post-dated cheque' on a bank that is itself on the verge of bankruptcy." Other factors contributing to this movement included the threat of a Japanese invasion of India, and the realization among national leaders that the British government was completely incapable of defending the country.

Human health: physical health, mental health, social health | Ayurveda and Global Health.

 

What is human health?

A relative state in which an individual is able to function effectively—physically, mentally, socially, and spiritually—thereby enabling them to express the full range of their unique capabilities within the environment in which they live. In the words of René Dubos, "Health is primarily a measure of each individual's capacity to do what he wants to do and to become what he wants to become."

Current perspectives on health and illness view health as something far more comprehensive than merely the absence of disease. It is understood that human beings are dynamic entities whose health status can fluctuate from day to day, or even from hour to hour. It is more appropriate to view each individual as situated along a graduated scale or a continuous spectrum—a scale that ranges from clearly severe illness, passes through a state characterized by the absence of any apparent disease, and ultimately reaches a state of optimal functioning in every aspect of life. High-level wellness is described as a dynamic process in which an individual actively engages in moving toward the realization of their full potential.

The World Health Organization (WHO) defined health in 1948 as follows:

1) Health means being in a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being (not merely the absence of disease).

Or,

2) Health means an individual's state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being.

Health is not merely the absence of disease. A healthy life is a successful life; it is essential to understand what holistic health means. The meaning of health can vary from person to person. But, generally speaking, being healthy means successfully navigating all the social, physical, and emotional challenges that life presents.

What is Health?

Health is a balance of our physical, mental, and social well-being, which affects the quality of our lives. Health is not just the absence of disease; it encompasses many aspects that contribute to a happy and successful life.

Physical health:

Physical health means that our body organs are functioning properly and that we take regular care of them. This includes a nutritious diet, regular exercise, sufficient sleep, and avoiding tobacco, alcohol, and other harmful substances.

Mental health:

Mental health means having a stable and positive mental state. It involves managing stress, reducing anxiety, maintaining a positive outlook, and fostering healthy social relationships. Mental health is very important in our lives; we must ensure that our thoughts and emotions are directed in a positive and constructive way.

                                                                                 

                                                                                  

Social Health:

Social health means having positive and fulfilling social relationships. This includes nurturing and supportive relationships with family, friends, and the community. Health is not just the absence of disease; it encompasses well-being in all aspects of our lives. Maintaining good health requires regular check-ups, a healthy lifestyle, and a positive mindset.

Therefore, we should view health not merely as the absence of illness, but as a positive and fulfilling state. We should take care of our physical, mental, and social health so that we can live a happy, positive, and fulfilling life.

Ayurveda

Ayurveda is an ancient Indian system of medicine that has been an integral part of Indian culture for thousands of years. The word 'Ayurveda' comes from the Sanskrit words 'Ayur' (life) and 'Veda' (knowledge), meaning 'knowledge of life'. The primary goal of Ayurveda is to achieve and maintain optimal health and well-being. It emphasizes holistic approaches to healthcare, including diet, exercise, and yoga. Ayurveda also believes that a balance of body, mind, and spirit is essential for good health.

This system places great importance on the use of natural remedies, such as herbs, minerals, and plants, and treats illnesses based on their effect on the body. Ayurvedic practitioners identify the root causes of illnesses and recommend appropriate treatments and dietary changes. Ayurveda promotes a healthy lifestyle for maintaining good health and quality of life, emphasizing healthy eating, yoga, meditation, and exercise. Even today, Ayurveda remains an important part of healthcare in India and many other countries, and people continue to use it to improve and maintain their health.

Global Health

Global health is a field of study that examines health issues, processes, and policies from an international perspective. Its main objective is to improve and protect the health of people worldwide.

Some key topics in global health include:

1. Infectious diseases: Research and efforts to prevent and control the spread of infectious diseases globally.

2. Maternal and child health: Studying and researching policies and programs to improve maternal and child health.

3. Food security: Efforts to ensure that people have access to adequate and safe food through food security measures.

4. Vaccination: Efforts to eradicate and prevent dangerous diseases through vaccination programs.

5. Health services: Efforts to ensure access to and availability of appropriate, effective, and affordable health services.

6. Health rights: Development and implementation of health policies that protect individual and social health rights and responsibilities.

7. Epidemic management: Addressing global health challenges such as AIDS, malaria, and tuberculosis, with particular attention to the health of people with low socioeconomic status.

Many international organizations and governments are involved in the field of global health, working to promote and improve health worldwide and ensure equitable health systems. Furthermore, numerous research and study programs in global health are underway, helping to find new and more effective solutions to health problems.

Monsoon - the wind that brings rain | Monsoon systems around the world : Asian Monsoon, The African Monsoon.

                                                                                   

 

The monsoon, or rainy season, refers to the winds that originate over the Indian Ocean and the Arabian Sea and blow towards the southwest coast of India, bringing heavy rainfall to India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and other regions. These are seasonal winds that are active in the South Asian region for approximately four months, from June to September. The term was first used in the context of British India (present-day India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh) and neighboring countries. It was used to describe the large-scale seasonal winds that blow from the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea, bringing heavy rainfall to the region from the southwest. In hydrology, the term "monsoon" has a broader meaning—it refers to any wind system that brings the majority of rainfall to a region during a particular season. It is important to note that a monsoon does not necessarily mean continuous rainfall. According to this broader definition, other regions of the world, such as North America, South America, sub-Saharan Africa, Australia, and East Asia, can also be considered monsoon regions. The word "monsoon" comes from the Arabic word "mausim," meaning season. The monsoon is entirely dependent on wind patterns. It occurs when the prevailing winds change direction. As these winds move from cooler to warmer regions, they pick up moisture, resulting in rainfall.

Most summer monsoons are characterized by prevailing westerly winds, which bring heavy rainfall. This is because these winds carry a high amount of moisture as they rise. However, the intensity and duration of these monsoons vary from year to year. In contrast, winter monsoons are dominated by easterly winds, which tend to descend and spread out, resulting in generally dry weather.

Monsoon systems around the world

The major monsoon systems in the world include those of West Africa and Asia-Australia. There is still debate about whether the monsoon systems of North America and South America should also be included in this category.

Asian Monsoon

The intensification of the Asian monsoon has been linked to the uplift of the Tibetan Plateau following the collision of the Indian subcontinent with Asia approximately 50 million years ago. Based on records from the Arabian Sea and studies of wind-blown dust deposits on China's Loess Plateau, many geologists believe that the monsoon first intensified around 8 million years ago. More recently, studies of plant fossils in China and long-term sediment records from the South China Sea suggest that the monsoon originated 15–20 million years ago and was associated with the early uplift of Tibet. To test this hypothesis, samples collected from the deep ocean by the 'Integrated Ocean Drilling Program' are currently being awaited. Since that time, the intensity of the monsoon has undergone significant fluctuations, driven primarily by global climate change—specifically, the cycles of the Pleistocene Ice Age. A study of Asian monsoon climate cycles during the Elmien interglacial period—which spanned from 123,200 to 121,210 years BP (Before Present)—reveals that their average duration was approximately 64 years, with a minimum duration of about 50 years and a maximum of around 80 years—a pattern that closely resembles the pattern observed today.

A study of marine plankton revealed that the South Asian Monsoon (SAM) intensified approximately five million years ago. Subsequently, during the Ice Age, sea levels dropped, and the Indonesian Seaway closed. When this occurred, the flow of cold water from the Pacific Ocean into the Indian Ocean ceased. It is believed that the monsoon intensified further due to the resulting rise in sea surface temperatures within the Indian Ocean. In 2018, a study examining the variability of the SAM over the past one million years found that, during the Ice Age, monsoon rainfall was significantly lower compared to non-glacial periods like the present day. During the warming period following the Last Glacial Maximum, the Indian Summer Monsoon (ISM) intensified on several occasions—specifically during the time intervals of 16,100–14,600 BP, 13,600–13,000 BP, and 12,400–10,400 BP. This is corroborated by changes in vegetation on the Tibetan Plateau, which indicate increased humidity resulting from the intensification of the ISM. However, for most of the subsequent Holocene epoch, the ISM remained relatively weak; nevertheless, substantial snow accumulation occurred in the Himalayas due to cold air currents brought by westerly winds from the west.

                                                                                   

    

During the Middle Miocene epoch, the July ITCZ ​​(Intertropical Convergence Zone—the region of maximum rainfall) shifted northward, leading to increased precipitation in southern China during the East Asian Summer Monsoon (EASM), while the Indochina region became drier. During the Late Miocene Global Cooling (LMCG)—which spanned from 7.9 to 5.8 million years ago—the East Asian Winter Monsoon (EAWM) intensified further as the sub-Arctic front shifted southward. Approximately 5.5 million years ago, the EAWM experienced a sudden and rapid intensification. From approximately 4.3 to 3.8 million years ago, the EAWM was considerably weaker than it is today; however, around 3.8 million years ago, it underwent a sudden intensification. This occurred because crustal extension caused the Tsushima Strait to widen, thereby increasing the inflow of the warm Tsushima Current into the Sea of ​​Japan. Around 3.0 million years ago, the EAWM—which had previously been highly variable and irregular—became more stable, and its intensity increased further during periods of global cooling and declining sea levels. During the cold phases of glacial epochs (such as the 'Last Glacial Maximum' or LGM), the EASM remained weak, whereas it became more powerful during the interglacial and warm phases of these epochs. Another episode of EAWM intensification occurred approximately 2.6 million years ago, followed by a similar event around 1.0 million years ago. The intensity of the EASM increased during Dalsgaard–Escher events, while it is believed to have diminished during Heinrich events. Following the LGM, as sea levels rose, the influence of the EASM extended even deeper into the interior regions of Asia; Furthermore, during the mid-Holocene epoch (approximately 6,000 years ago), another phase of intensified monsoon activity occurred. This was driven by the influence of 'orbital forcing,' an effect further amplified by the extensive vegetation cover present in the Sahara region at that time, which consequently led to reduced dust emissions from the area. This mid-Holocene period—characterized by the peak strength of the EASM—was associated with the expansion of 'temperate deciduous forest-steppe' and 'temperate mixed forest-steppe' ecosystems in Northern China. Approximately 5,000 to 4,500 years ago (BP), the strength of the East Asian Monsoon began to wane, and it has been steadily weakening ever since. A particularly notable decline in its intensity was recorded approximately 3,000 years ago (BP). Throughout the Holocene epoch, the spatial extent of the EASM underwent several shifts: initially, between 12,000 and 8,000 BP, it shifted southward; subsequently, between approximately 8,000 and 4,000 BP, it expanded northward; and most recently—between 4,000 and 0 BP—it once again retreated southward.

South Asian Monsoon

Indian Monsoon

The monsoon in India depends on the winds that blow from the Indian Ocean and the Arabian Sea towards the Himalayas. When these winds collide with the Western Ghats along India's southwestern coast, they bring heavy rainfall to India and neighboring countries. These winds are active in South Asia from June to September. Generally, the monsoon of any region depends on its climate. India has a tropical climate and is primarily influenced by two types of winds – the northeast monsoon and the southwest monsoon. The northeast monsoon is often called the winter monsoon. These winds blow from land towards the sea, crossing the Indian Ocean, the Arabian Sea, and the Bay of Bengal. Most of the rainfall in India occurs due to the southwest monsoon. The Tropic of Cancer passes through India from east to west, which directly affects the country's climate. Of the three seasons – summer, winter, and monsoon – the monsoon season is often referred to as the rainy season.

Generally, during the monsoon season, the temperature drops, but the humidity (moisture) increases considerably. Humidity plays an important role in meteorology. It is the amount of water vapor present in the atmosphere, which reaches the atmosphere from the earth through various forms of evaporation.

East Asian Monsoon

The East Asian monsoon affects vast areas of Indochina, the Philippines, China, Korea, and Japan. Its main characteristic is a hot, rainy summer and a cool, dry winter. Most of the rainfall occurs within a specific east-west zone, except in eastern China, where the rain extends northeastward to Korea and Japan. This seasonal rainfall is known as May-yu in China, Changma in Korea, and Bai-u in Japan. In southern China and Taiwan, the summer monsoon rains begin with pre-monsoon downpours in early May. From May to August, the summer monsoon progresses, alternating between dry and wet periods. It begins in May over Indochina and the South China Sea, reaches the Yangtze River and Japan by June, and finally extends to northern China and Korea by July. The monsoon season ends in August, and the rainfall retreats southward.

The African Monsoon

The monsoon in West-Sub-Saharan Africa was previously thought to be caused by the seasonal movement of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and the temperature and humidity differences between the Sahara Desert and the equatorial Atlantic Ocean. It moves northward from the equatorial Atlantic Ocean in February, reaching West Africa by around June 22, and then retreats southward by October. The dry north-westerly trade winds, and their extreme form, the Harmattan, are influenced by the northward movement of the ITCZ, while the southerly winds generated by this movement bring the summer rains. The semi-arid regions of the Sahel and Sudan depend on this pattern for the majority of their annual rainfall.

North American Monsoon

The North American Monsoon (also called NAM) lasts from late June or early July through September. It originates over Mexico and brings rain to the southwestern United States by mid-July. Its influence increases rainfall and humidity in the Sierra Madre Occidental of Mexico, as well as in Arizona, New Mexico, Nevada, Utah, Colorado, western Texas, and California. It extends westward to the peninsular regions and the Transverse Ranges of southern California, but rarely reaches the Pacific coast. The North American Monsoon is also known as the summer monsoon, the southwestern monsoon, the Mexican monsoon, or the Arizona monsoon. It is sometimes called the desert monsoon, as most of its affected area lies within the Mojave and Sonoran Deserts.

Education

Education is the process of facilitating learning, or the acquisition of knowledge, skills, values, beliefs, and habits. Educational methods include storytelling, discussion, teaching, training, and directed research. Education frequently takes place under the guidance of educators, however learners may also educate themselves. Education can take place in formal or informal settings and any experience that has a formative effect on the way one thinks, feels, or acts may be considered educational. The methodology of teaching is called pedagogy.

Formal education is commonly divided formally into such stages as preschool or kindergarten, primary school, secondary school and then college, university, or apprenticeship.

A right to education has been recognized by some governments and the United Nations.In most regions, education is compulsory up to a certain age.Education began in prehistory, as adults trained the young in the knowledge and skills deemed necessary in their society. In pre-literate societies, this was achieved orally and through imitation. Story-telling passed knowledge, values, and skills from one generation to the next. As cultures began to extend their knowledge beyond skills that could be readily learned through imitation, formal education developed. Schools existed in Egypt at the time of the Middle Kingdom.

Matteo Ricci (left) and Xu Guangqi (right) in the Chinese edition of Euclid's Elements published in 1607

Plato founded the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in Europe. The city of Alexandria in Egypt, established in 330 BCE, became the successor to Athens as the intellectual cradle of Ancient Greece. There, the great Library of Alexandria was built in the 3rd century BCE. European civilizations suffered a collapse of literacy and organization following the fall of Rome in CE 476.

In China, Confucius (551–479 BCE), of the State of Lu, was the country's most influential ancient philosopher, whose educational outlook continues to influence the societies of China and neighbours like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. Confucius gathered disciples and searched in vain for a ruler who would adopt his ideals for good governance, but his Analects were written down by followers and have continued to influence education in East Asia into the modern era.