Mohenjo-daro Civilization | History of the Mohenjo-daro Civilization

 

Mohenjo-daro is an archaeological site located in the Sindh province of ancient India. Numerous remains of the Indus Valley Civilization have been found here.

Mohenjo-Daro Civilization

The word "Mohenjo-Daro" is derived from the Sindhi language, and its correct pronunciation is "Muan-jo-Daro." It literally means "mound of burials." It is considered the world's oldest planned and most developed city. It is the most advanced city of the Indus Valley Civilization. The remains of this city are located on the banks of the Indus River in Sukkur district. It was discovered by Rakhaldas Banerjee in 1922. Excavations began under the direction of John Marshall, Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India. A large number of buildings, metal statues, and seals were discovered during the excavations. In the last 100 years, only one-third of the city has been excavated, and that has now ceased. It is believed that the city covered an area of ​​125 hectares and also had a reservoir.

History of the Mohenjo-daro Civilization

Mohenjo-daro was the center of the ancient civilization of the Indus Valley. It is located twenty kilometers from Ladkana and 80 kilometers southwest of Sukkur. It is 400 miles from Harappa, another important center in the Indus Valley. The city existed around 2600 BCE and disappeared for unknown reasons around 1700 BCE. However, experts believe that changes in the course of the Indus River, floods, external invasions, or earthquakes may have been the main causes.

Mohenjo-daro was discovered in 1922 by British archaeologist Sir John Marshall, and its remains remain a feature of the Mohenjo-daro Museum. However, there is also a school of thought that disputes this interpretation and claims that it was discovered in 1911 by R.K. Bhinder, an expert on antiquities in secular India. Hakim Shah Bukhari, former director of the Mohenjo-daro Conservation Cell, says, "R.K. Bhinder drew attention to the site's historical significance as a sacred Buddhist site. About an ashra later, Sir John Marshall visited the site and began excavations. The city was well-organized. Its streets were open and straight, with proper drainage. It is estimated that about 35,000 people lived there. Experts estimate that the city was destroyed and resettled seven times, the most significant of which was by the floods of the Indus River. The world's first bathhouse, known as the Great Bath, was found here. The city is a World Heritage Site under the auspices of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).

Features of Mohenjo-Daro

The beauty of Mohenjo-Daro is that you can still wander the streets and lanes of this ancient city. Artifacts of its civilization and culture adorn museums, but the city remains where it once was. Its walls still stand strong, and you can relax here. Despite its ruins, you can suddenly feel a sense of peace as you step onto the threshold of a house, or smell a fragrance while standing at a kitchen window. Or you can hear the tinkling sound of a bullock cart on a deserted city street, or the color of the soil you may have seen in archaeological photographs. It's true that the broken steps in the courtyard no longer lead you anywhere; they are incomplete, reaching the sky. But standing on those incomplete steps, it feels like you're on the roof of the world; from there, you're looking not at history, but at its present. This city is said to be India's oldest historical site.

Famous Pond

In Mohenjo-daro's Divinity Lane, located in a lane called Divinity Lane, is the famous pond, approximately forty feet long, twenty-five feet wide, and seven feet deep. Stairs descend into the pond from the north and south. Rooms are built on three sides of the pond. Eight bathrooms are located on the north side. The pond was constructed with great care, as none of its doors faces another. The bricks are exceptionally strong. To prevent impure water from entering the pond, lime and chirodi mortar were used between the bricks on the bottom and walls. The walls are paved with asphalt. A double-circular well was built to supply water to the pond. Drains made of baked bricks were also built to drain the water from the pond, and, importantly, it is covered with baked bricks. This proves that despite being so ancient, the people here were in no way inferior to us. Overall, the Indus Valley was characterized by its baked bricks and covered drains, and its well-organized drainage system was unmatched in earlier recorded history.

Agriculture at Mohenjo-daro

Excavations have also revealed the existence of an agricultural and pastoral civilization. Tools made of stone from Sindh and copper from Rajasthan were used for farming. According to historian Irfan Habib, the people here cultivated the Rabi crop. Excavations have revealed strong evidence of the cultivation of wheat, mustard, cotton, barley, and gram. It is believed that many other crops were also grown here; seeds of all but cotton have been found. A sample of one of the world's two oldest cotton fabrics was found here. Excavations have also uncovered a textile dyeing factory.

Town Planning

The buildings of Mohenjo-daro may have fallen into ruins, but these ruins are enough to illustrate the vastness of the city's streets and lanes. The streets follow a grid plan, meaning they are crisscrossed.

The eastern settlements are considered "elite settlements" because they feature large houses, wide roads, and numerous wells. The streets of Mohenjo-daro are so wide that two bullock carts can easily pass through them. Houses are on both sides of the road. Interestingly, only the backs of the houses face the road, meaning the doors face the inner lanes. In fact, Mohenjo-daro is commendable from a health perspective because, despite being so far behind us, its town planning system is remarkable. Historians say that Mohenjo-daro was the first culture of the Indus Valley Civilization to obtain groundwater by digging wells. Mohenjo-daro had approximately 700 wells. Looking at its unmatched drainage system, wells, ponds and rivers, we can say that the Mohenjodaro civilization was truly a water culture.

Mohenjo-Daro Museum

The Mohenjo-Daro Museum is small. Its main collections are located in Karachi, Lahore, Delhi, and London. It houses black wheat, copper and bronze vessels, seals, musical instruments, large pottery carved on a wheel and painted black and brown, chess pieces, lamps, scales, a copper mirror, a clay bullock cart and other toys, a two-stone mill, combs, clay bracelets, necklaces with colorful stone beads, and stone tools. According to Ali Nawaz, who works at the museum, some gold jewelry was once found here, but was stolen.

A special feature of this museum is that it contains tools, but no weapons. Through this research, scholars are trying to understand the governance and social management practices of the Indus Valley Civilization. Discipline was certainly there, but not by force, but by intelligence.

The museum also includes some needles. Numerous copper and bronze needles were found during the excavation. Kashinath Dixit found three gold needles, one of which was two inches long. These are believed to have been used for intricate embroidery. In addition to these needles, ivory and copper needles were also found during the excavation.

An important Satyagraha in the life of Mahatma Gandhi: Champaran Satyagraha

 

In 1917, Mahatma Gandhi led a movement in the Champaran district of Bihar, known as the Champaran Satyagraha. This was Gandhi's first satyagraha in India.

Background to the Champaran Satyagraha

Mahatma Gandhi attended the Lucknow session of the Congress in December 1916. On this occasion, he met a man who would change the course of his political career: Rajkumar Shukla. This simple but determined man told him about the suffering of the peasants in his region and their exploitation by the British, and urged him to end it.

Gandhiji was not impressed by Rajkumar Shukla at first meeting, and therefore refused him. However, Shukla met him repeatedly and persuaded him to accept his request. As a result, within four months, the peasants of Champaran were permanently freed from the forced cultivation of indigo on 15% of their land. Gandhiji was not confident of such quick success. Thus, Gandhi's connection with Bihar and Champaran was forever linked.

The Champaran peasant movement took place in April 1917. It was on the soil of Champaran that Gandhiji first employed his proven weapons of Satyagraha and non-violence in India, which he had practiced in South Africa. It was here that he resolved that from then on, he would live his life wearing only one garment. It was after this movement that he was awarded the title of "Mahatma." This movement also gave the country such great figures as Rajendra Prasad, Acharya Kripalani, Mazharul Haq, and Brijkishore Prasad.

In the twelfth chapter of the fifth part of his autobiography, "Experiments with Truth," titled "The Stain of Indigo," Gandhiji writes, "Before going to the Lucknow session, I did not even know the name of Champaran. I had no knowledge of indigo cultivation. I was unaware of the suffering that thousands of farmers had to endure because of it." He further writes, "Rajkumar Shukla, a farmer from Champaran, followed me there. He kept following me and inviting me to his place, saying that he would tell everything to Vakil Babu (Brijkishore Prasad, who was a famous lawyer of Bihar at that time and father-in-law of Jayaprakash Narayan)."

But Mahatma Gandhi told Rajkumar Shukla not to follow him for the time being. At this session, Brijkishore Prasad spoke on the plight of Champaran, after which the Congress passed a resolution. Still, Rajkumar Shukla did not relent and insisted on taking Gandhi to Champaran. Gandhi reluctantly replied, "I will include Champaran in my tour and stay there for a day or two to see the situation for myself. I cannot express my opinion on this matter without seeing it."

Gandhi then went to Kanpur, but Shukla remained adamant. He said, "Champaran is very close. Please give me a day." Gandhi replied, "Forgive me now, but I will definitely go there." Gandhi writes that he felt bound by this.

Still, the stubborn farmer persisted. He reached his ashram in Ahmedabad and insisted on setting a date for his departure. Gandhi could not resist. He announced his departure for Calcutta on April 7th. He requested Rajkumar Shukla to come and welcome him. Shukla had already set up camp there before Gandhiji arrived in Calcutta on April 7, 1917. Gandhiji wrote, "This illiterate, unsophisticated, but determined peasant has won me over."

Gandhiji's First Visit to Patna and the Champaran Movement

Champaran is located in the northwestern region of Bihar. It borders Nepal. At that time, the British had implemented a law requiring farmers to cultivate indigo on every bigha (three katthas) of land. Indigo was cultivated throughout the country, except in Bengal. Farmers received nothing in return for their labor and were subjected to 42 extraordinary taxes. Rajkumar Shukla was a prosperous farmer in that region. He strongly opposed this system of exploitation, resulting in repeated flogging and torture by the British. When his efforts failed, he decided to go to the Lucknow Congress to invite Bal Gangadhar Tilak. However, upon his arrival, he received a suggestion to include Gandhiji, and he considered it.

Finally, Gandhiji agreed, and on April 10, the two arrived in Patna from Calcutta. He writes, "On the way, I realized that this gentleman was a very simple man and that I would have to proceed in my own way." After Patna, the two arrived in Muzaffarpur the next day. There, the next morning, they were welcomed by J.B. Kripalani, a professor at Muzaffarpur University and later president of the Congress Party, and his students. Shukla left Gandhi there and left for Champaran to complete all preparations before departure. It was in Muzaffarpur that Rajendra Prasad first met Gandhi. It was here, with the support of several prominent lawyers and social activists in the state, that they finalized their future strategy.

Subsequently, despite the Commissioner's refusal to grant permission, Mahatma Gandhi entered Champaran on April 15. He received the unwavering support of many farmers, including Rajkumar Shukla. Statements from the affected farmers were recorded. The struggle was fought nonviolently, without direct support from the Congress. It was widely covered in local newspapers, garnering widespread public support for the movement. As a result, the British government was forced to yield. Indigo cultivation, which had been prevalent for the past 135 years, gradually ceased. The exploitation of indigo farmers also ended forever.

Bardoli Satyagraha: A nationalist movement in India | Bardoli Satyagraha Movement

 

The Bardoli Satyagraha was a peasant movement and nationalist protest in India. It was a protest against the increased taxes imposed on farmers by the colonial government, specifically demanding the rollback of a 22% tax hike in the Bombay Presidency. The movement began on February 12, 1928, and concluded successfully in August of the same year. It was ultimately led by Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, and its success established him as one of the key leaders of the Indian independence movement.

Background of the Bardoli Satyagraha

In 1926, the Bardoli taluk in Surat district of Gujarat was facing an economic crisis. That year, the Bombay Presidency government increased the tax rate by 30%. Despite appeals from local groups, the government refused to roll back the tax increase and ignored the people's grievances. The farmers' situation was so dire that they barely had enough property and crops left to pay the taxes, let alone support their families.

Exploring Options for the Bardoli Satyagraha

Gujarati activists Narhari Parikh, Ravishankar Vyas, and Mohanlal Pandya met with village leaders and farmers, seeking support from Vallabhbhai Patel, one of Gujarat's most prominent freedom fighters. Patel had led the peasants of Gujarat during the Kheda Satyagraha and had recently served as the mayor of Ahmedabad. He was held in high esteem by the people of the state.

Patel told a delegation of farmers that they should fully understand the implications of rebellion. He would not lead them until there was consensus and understanding across all the villages. Failure to pay taxes could result in the confiscation of their property, including their land, and many could be sent to jail. They could face total ruin. The villagers replied that they were prepared for even the worst outcome, but they could not tolerate the government's unjust actions.

Patel then asked Gandhi to consider the matter, but Gandhi only sought Patel's opinion, and when Patel outlined the way forward with complete confidence, he gave his blessing. However, Gandhi and Patel agreed that neither the Congress nor Gandhi would be directly involved; the movement would be entirely in the hands of the people of Bardoli Taluk.

Bardoli Satyagraha Movement

On February 6, Patel first wrote a letter to the Governor of Bombay, requesting a reduction in the tax for that year, given the hardships faced by the people. However, the Governor ignored the letter and announced the date for tax collection.

Thereafter, Patel instructed all the farmers of the Bardoli taluk to refuse to pay the tax. With the help of Narhari Parikh, Ravishankar Vyas, and Mohanlal Pandya, he divided Bardoli into several zones, appointing a leader and volunteers in each zone. Patel also deployed some active workers close to the government to keep track of the activities of government officials.

Most importantly, Patel instructed the farmers to remain completely non-violent and not to react physically to any provocation or violent action by the authorities. He assured them that the movement would continue until all the taxes for that year were waived and all confiscated property and land were returned to their rightful owners.

The people of Gujarat fully supported the farmers. Many farmers hid their valuables with relatives in other areas, and the protesters received financial aid and essential supplies from other regions. However, Patel did not allow any sympathetic demonstrations by enthusiastic supporters in Gujarat or other parts of the country.

The government declared that it would crush this rebellion. Along with tax collectors, some Pathans from northwest India were also brought in to seize the villagers' property and intimidate them. The Pathans and tax collectors forcibly entered houses and looted all property, including livestock (the protesters kept their animals inside their houses when the tax collectors came, so they couldn't take the animals from the fields).

The government started auctioning the houses and land, but no one from Gujarat or any other part of the country came forward to buy them. Patel had appointed volunteers to monitor each village. As soon as the volunteers learned that the officials were coming to auction the property, they would blow conch shells. The farmers would then leave the village and hide in the forest. They never knew which house belonged to whom.

But some wealthy people from Bombay came to buy some land. Even a village that had paid its taxes was targeted. Those who did not participate in the tax boycott or bought confiscated land were ostracized by the community; relatives severed all ties with the families in the village. Other forms of social sanctions against such landlords included refusing to rent their land or work for them. Members of the Legislative Council in Bombay and across India were outraged by the brutal treatment of the protesting peasants. Indian members resigned from their posts and openly expressed their support for the farmers.

Simon Commission: Indian Statutory Commission | Lala Lajpat Rai's Opposition to the Simon Commission and His Death

The Indian Statutory Commission, also known as the Simon Commission, was a group of seven members of the British Parliament, chaired by John Simon. This commission came to the Indian subcontinent in 1928 to study constitutional reforms in British India. One of its members was Clement Attlee, who later became the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (1945-1951).

Background

This commission was formed because in 1919, when the British government implemented the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms, they announced that a commission would be sent to India after ten years to examine the impact and functioning of the constitutional reforms and to advise on further reforms.

The Muslim League and the Indian National Congress, along with prominent Indian leaders such as Nehru, Gandhi, and Jinnah, strongly opposed this commission because all its members were British, and there were no Indian members. However, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, Periyar E.V. Ramasamy, and Chaudhry Rahmat Ali supported it.

The prominent Indian nationalist Lala Lajpat Rai led the protests against this commission in Lahore. During the protests, the police brutally assaulted him, and he died 18 days later on November 17, 1928.

The Government of India Act of 1919 introduced the system of dual government for governing the provinces of British India. Public opinion in India demanded changes to this system of governance, and the 1919 Government of India Act stipulated that a commission would be appointed after ten years to examine the progress of the government's scheme and suggest new measures for improvement. The Secretary of State for India, F.E. Smith, feared that the Conservative Party in power might lose the election to the Labour Party, and therefore he feared that party members and supporters would be appointed to the commission. Consequently, the commission was hastily appointed, comprising seven members of Parliament to examine the status of the Indian constitution. He also ensured that there were no Indians on the commission, as he believed that Labour MPs and Indian members would vote together. The Viceroy of India, Lord Irwin, also supported the decision to exclude Indians, as he too believed they would vote together with the Labour MPs.

In India, some people were outraged and insulted by the fact that the Simon Commission, which was to determine India's future, had no Indian members. The Indian National Congress passed a resolution at its meeting in Madras (now Chennai) in December 1927 to boycott the commission and challenged the Secretary of State for India, Lord Birkenhead, to draft a constitution acceptable to Indians.

In view of the Congress's opposition, F.E. Smith sought to publicize the commission's meetings with "representative Muslims" in order to "instill in the large Hindu population the fear that the commission was dominated by Muslims and might produce a report highly detrimental to Hindus."

However, opinions were divided; some members of the Muslim League, as well as members of the Hindu Mahasabha and the Central Sikh League, supported cooperation. The Indian Council formed an All-India Committee for cooperation with the Simon Commission, and the Viceroy, Lord Irwin, selected its members. The committee members were: C. S. Naicker (Chairman), Arthur Frum, Nawab Ali Khan, Shivdev Singh Uberoi, Zulfiqar Ali Khan, Hari Singh Gour, Abdullah Al-Mamoon Suhrawardy, Kikabhai Premchand, and Prof. M.C. Raja.

In Burma (now Myanmar), which was also under the purview of the Simon Commission, there were fears that the Burmese union with India would continue, or that the constitution suggested for Burma by the commission would be less liberal than the one chosen for India; these fears led to tension and violence in Burma, culminating in the Saya San Rebellion.

The commission found that untouchables were being denied education and subjected to ill-treatment on the basis of caste.

Lala Lajpat Rai's Opposition to the Simon Commission and His Death

The Simon Commission left England in January 1928. Upon its arrival in Bombay on February 3, 1928, its members were greeted by a large crowd of protesters, although some in the crowd considered it a step towards self-rule. A strike was declared, and many people joined the march, carrying black flags and shouting "Simon, go back!" In Patna, the protests against the Simon Commission were led by M.A. Azazi. Similar protests took place in every major city in India visited by the seven British MPs.

One protest against the Simon Commission became particularly famous. On October 30, 1928, the commission arrived in Lahore, where protesters waving black flags greeted them. This protest was led by the Indian nationalist Lala Lajpat Rai, who had introduced a resolution against the commission in the Punjab Legislative Council in February 1928. The protesters blocked the road to prevent the commission members from leaving the railway station. To clear the way for the commission, the local police, led by Superintendent James Scott, started lathi-charging the protesters. Lala Lajpat Rai was seriously injured, and he died from his head injuries on November 17, 1928.

Quit India Movement: India's fight for freedom | World War II and India's Involvement, The Cripps Mission

 

The Quit India Movement was a movement launched by Mahatma Gandhi on August 8, 1942, during World War II, at the Bombay session of the All India Congress Committee. This movement demanded the end of British rule in India. Following the failure of the British government to secure Indian support for the war effort through the Cripps Mission, Gandhi delivered his 'Do or Die' speech at the Gwalior Tank Maidan in Bombay on August 8, 1942. Viceroy Linlithgow described this movement as the most serious rebellion since 1857.

The All India Congress Committee decided to launch a large-scale non-cooperation movement across the country. Gandhi demanded the 'withdrawal of British forces from India'. Despite the war, Britain was prepared to take action. Within hours of Gandhi's speech, almost all the leaders of the Indian National Congress were arrested without trial. Most spent the rest of the war in prison, cut off from the public. The British government had the support of the Viceroy's Council, the All India Muslim League, the Hindu Mahasabha, the princely states, the Indian Imperial Police, the British Indian Army, and the Indian Civil Service. Many Indian businessmen, who were profiting from the huge war expenditure, did not support the Quit India Movement. Significant support also came from America, where President Franklin D. Roosevelt pressured Prime Minister Winston Churchill to concede some Indian demands.

The movement involved boycotting the British government and refusing to cooperate with them. Numerous violent incidents against British rule occurred across the country. The British government arrested thousands of leaders and imprisoned them until 1945.  Ultimately, the British government realized that ruling India forever was impossible, and the post-war issue became how to withdraw peacefully and with dignity.

The movement ended with the release of the freedom fighters in 1945.  Among the martyrs of this freedom movement were Mukund Kakati, Matangini Hazra, Kanaklata Barua, Kushal Konwar, Bhogeswari Phukanani, and others. In 1992, the Reserve Bank of India issued a commemorative 1-rupee coin to mark the golden jubilee of the Quit India Movement.

World War II and India's Involvement

In 1939, Indian nationalist leaders were angered that the British Governor-General of India, Lord Linlithgow, had dragged India into the war without consulting them.

When the war began, the Congress Party passed a resolution at its Working Committee meeting in Wardha in September 1939, offering conditional support to the fight against the Axis powers, but only on the condition that their demand for independence be granted:

“If the issue is democracy and a world order based on democracy, then India has a deep interest in it. If Great Britain fights to maintain and spread democracy, it must necessarily abolish imperialism in its territories and establish full democracy in India, granting the Indian people the right of self-determination.”

Gandhi did not support this initiative, as he fundamentally disagreed with the very idea of ​​supporting the war (he firmly believed in nonviolent resistance, which had been used in the Indian independence movement, and he supported it against Adolf Hitler, Benito Mussolini, and Hideki Tojo). However, at the height of the British struggle, Gandhi expressed his support for the fight against racism and the British war effort, stating that they did not want to build a free India from the ashes of Britain. However, opinions were divided. Due to the British policy of limiting investment in India and using the country as a market and source of revenue, the Indian army was relatively weak, poorly equipped, and poorly trained, and the British government was forced to contribute to the Indian budget, while taxes were increased dramatically and the cost of living doubled. While some Indian businesses benefited from increased production during the war, businesses generally felt "disrespected" by the government, especially by the British Raj's refusal to give Indians a greater role in organizing and mobilizing the economy for wartime production. Subhas Chandra Bose commented that "the Quit India Movement opened a new chapter in the Indian freedom struggle." After the outbreak of World War II, Bose formed the Indian Legion in Germany, reorganized the Indian National Army with Japanese support, and launched a guerrilla war against the British authorities, seeking assistance from the Axis powers. The Viceroy, Lord Linlithgow, described this movement as "the most serious rebellion since 1857." In a telegram to Winston Churchill on August 31, he wrote:

" Mob violence is common in large areas of the countryside, and I am quite certain that in September we will see a major attempt to disrupt our war effort once again. The lives of Europeans in remote areas are in danger."

When the American Republican presidential candidate Wendell Willkie and YMCA official Sherwood Eddy planned to meet Gandhi, Linlithgow considered it American interference in "our affairs" and asked Churchill to stop them. Indian nationalists knew that the United States supported Indian independence in principle and considered itself an ally. But when Churchill threatened to resign if there was too much pressure, the United States quietly supported him and launched a propaganda campaign against the Indians to boost public support for the war effort. This poorly executed American campaign further alienated the Indians.

The Cripps Mission

In March 1942, amidst growing discontent among Indian soldiers and the general public, and with the war effort in Europe faltering, the British government sent a delegation to India led by Stafford Cripps, the leader of the House of Commons. This mission, known as the Cripps Mission, aimed to secure the full cooperation of the Indian National Congress during the war, in return for transferring and distributing power from the Crown and Viceroy to an elected Indian legislature. The negotiations failed because the Congress's key demands—a timeline for self-government and the specific powers to be transferred—were not addressed.

Human health: physical health, mental health, social health | Ayurveda and Global Health.

 

The World Health Organization (WHO) defined health in 1948 as follows:

1) Health means being in a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being (not merely the absence of disease).

Or,

2) Health means an individual's state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being.

Health is not merely the absence of disease. A healthy life is a successful life; it is essential to understand what holistic health means. The meaning of health can vary from person to person. But, generally speaking, being healthy means successfully navigating all the social, physical, and emotional challenges that life presents.

What is Health?

Health is a balance of our physical, mental, and social well-being, which affects the quality of our lives. Health is not just the absence of disease; it encompasses many aspects that contribute to a happy and successful life.

Physical health:

Physical health means that our body organs are functioning properly and that we take regular care of them. This includes a nutritious diet, regular exercise, sufficient sleep, and avoiding tobacco, alcohol, and other harmful substances.

Mental health:

Mental health means having a stable and positive mental state. It involves managing stress, reducing anxiety, maintaining a positive outlook, and fostering healthy social relationships. Mental health is very important in our lives; we must ensure that our thoughts and emotions are directed in a positive and constructive way.

Social Health:

Social health means having positive and fulfilling social relationships. This includes nurturing and supportive relationships with family, friends, and the community. Health is not just the absence of disease; it encompasses well-being in all aspects of our lives. Maintaining good health requires regular check-ups, a healthy lifestyle, and a positive mindset.

Therefore, we should view health not merely as the absence of illness, but as a positive and fulfilling state. We should take care of our physical, mental, and social health so that we can live a happy, positive, and fulfilling life.

Ayurveda

Ayurveda is an ancient Indian system of medicine that has been an integral part of Indian culture for thousands of years. The word 'Ayurveda' comes from the Sanskrit words 'Ayur' (life) and 'Veda' (knowledge), meaning 'knowledge of life'. The primary goal of Ayurveda is to achieve and maintain optimal health and well-being. It emphasizes holistic approaches to healthcare, including diet, exercise, and yoga. Ayurveda also believes that a balance of body, mind, and spirit is essential for good health.

This system places great importance on the use of natural remedies, such as herbs, minerals, and plants, and treats illnesses based on their effect on the body. Ayurvedic practitioners identify the root causes of illnesses and recommend appropriate treatments and dietary changes. Ayurveda promotes a healthy lifestyle for maintaining good health and quality of life, emphasizing healthy eating, yoga, meditation, and exercise. Even today, Ayurveda remains an important part of healthcare in India and many other countries, and people continue to use it to improve and maintain their health.

Global Health

Global health is a field of study that examines health issues, processes, and policies from an international perspective. Its main objective is to improve and protect the health of people worldwide.

Some key topics in global health include:

1. Infectious diseases: Research and efforts to prevent and control the spread of infectious diseases globally.

2. Maternal and child health: Studying and researching policies and programs to improve maternal and child health.

3. Food security: Efforts to ensure that people have access to adequate and safe food through food security measures.

4. Vaccination: Efforts to eradicate and prevent dangerous diseases through vaccination programs.

5. Health services: Efforts to ensure access to and availability of appropriate, effective, and affordable health services.

6. Health rights: Development and implementation of health policies that protect individual and social health rights and responsibilities.

7. Epidemic management: Addressing global health challenges such as AIDS, malaria, and tuberculosis, with particular attention to the health of people with low socioeconomic status.

Many international organizations and governments are involved in the field of global health, working to promote and improve health worldwide and ensure equitable health systems. Furthermore, numerous research and study programs in global health are underway, helping to find new and more effective solutions to health problems.

Monsoon - the wind that brings rain | Monsoon systems around the world

 

The monsoon, or rainy season, refers to the winds that originate over the Indian Ocean and the Arabian Sea and blow towards the southwest coast of India, bringing heavy rainfall to India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and other regions. These are seasonal winds that are active in the South Asian region for approximately four months, from June to September. The term was first used in the context of British India (present-day India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh) and neighboring countries. It was used to describe the large-scale seasonal winds that blow from the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea, bringing heavy rainfall to the region from the southwest. In hydrology, the term "monsoon" has a broader meaning—it refers to any wind system that brings the majority of rainfall to a region during a particular season. It is important to note that a monsoon does not necessarily mean continuous rainfall. According to this broader definition, other regions of the world, such as North America, South America, sub-Saharan Africa, Australia, and East Asia, can also be considered monsoon regions. The word "monsoon" comes from the Arabic word "mausim," meaning season. The monsoon is entirely dependent on wind patterns. It occurs when the prevailing winds change direction. As these winds move from cooler to warmer regions, they pick up moisture, resulting in rainfall.

Most summer monsoons are characterized by prevailing westerly winds, which bring heavy rainfall. This is because these winds carry a high amount of moisture as they rise. However, the intensity and duration of these monsoons vary from year to year. In contrast, winter monsoons are dominated by easterly winds, which tend to descend and spread out, resulting in generally dry weather.

Monsoon systems around the world

The major monsoon systems in the world include those of West Africa and Asia-Australia. There is still debate about whether the monsoon systems of North America and South America should also be included in this category.

South Asian Monsoon

Indian Monsoon

The monsoon in India depends on the winds that blow from the Indian Ocean and the Arabian Sea towards the Himalayas. When these winds collide with the Western Ghats along India's southwestern coast, they bring heavy rainfall to India and neighboring countries. These winds are active in South Asia from June to September. Generally, the monsoon of any region depends on its climate. India has a tropical climate and is primarily influenced by two types of winds – the northeast monsoon and the southwest monsoon. The northeast monsoon is often called the winter monsoon. These winds blow from land towards the sea, crossing the Indian Ocean, the Arabian Sea, and the Bay of Bengal. Most of the rainfall in India occurs due to the southwest monsoon. The Tropic of Cancer passes through India from east to west, which directly affects the country's climate. Of the three seasons – summer, winter, and monsoon – the monsoon season is often referred to as the rainy season.

Generally, during the monsoon season, the temperature drops, but the humidity (moisture) increases considerably. Humidity plays an important role in meteorology. It is the amount of water vapor present in the atmosphere, which reaches the atmosphere from the earth through various forms of evaporation.

East Asian Monsoon

The East Asian monsoon affects vast areas of Indochina, the Philippines, China, Korea, and Japan. Its main characteristic is a hot, rainy summer and a cool, dry winter. Most of the rainfall occurs within a specific east-west zone, except in eastern China, where the rain extends northeastward to Korea and Japan. This seasonal rainfall is known as May-yu in China, Changma in Korea, and Bai-u in Japan. In southern China and Taiwan, the summer monsoon rains begin with pre-monsoon downpours in early May. From May to August, the summer monsoon progresses, alternating between dry and wet periods. It begins in May over Indochina and the South China Sea, reaches the Yangtze River and Japan by June, and finally extends to northern China and Korea by July. The monsoon season ends in August, and the rainfall retreats southward.

The African Monsoon

The monsoon in West-Sub-Saharan Africa was previously thought to be caused by the seasonal movement of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and the temperature and humidity differences between the Sahara Desert and the equatorial Atlantic Ocean. It moves northward from the equatorial Atlantic Ocean in February, reaching West Africa by around June 22, and then retreats southward by October. The dry north-westerly trade winds, and their extreme form, the Harmattan, are influenced by the northward movement of the ITCZ, while the southerly winds generated by this movement bring the summer rains. The semi-arid regions of the Sahel and Sudan depend on this pattern for the majority of their annual rainfall.

North American Monsoon

The North American Monsoon (also called NAM) lasts from late June or early July through September. It originates over Mexico and brings rain to the southwestern United States by mid-July. Its influence increases rainfall and humidity in the Sierra Madre Occidental of Mexico, as well as in Arizona, New Mexico, Nevada, Utah, Colorado, western Texas, and California. It extends westward to the peninsular regions and the Transverse Ranges of southern California, but rarely reaches the Pacific coast. The North American Monsoon is also known as the summer monsoon, the southwestern monsoon, the Mexican monsoon, or the Arizona monsoon. It is sometimes called the desert monsoon, as most of its affected area lies within the Mojave and Sonoran Deserts.

Rainbow - a bright phenomenon in the sky | Rainbow visibility

 

The rainbow that appears in the sky after rain is an optical phenomenon. It is caused by the refraction, internal reflection, and scattering of light in water droplets, resulting in a continuous band of colors across the sky. A rainbow appears as a circular arc with multiple colors. A rainbow formed by sunlight always appears in the sky directly opposite the sun. Rainbows can also be formed by various forms of water in the air, including not only rain, but also mist, spray, and dew.

A rainbow can be a complete circle. However, usually, a person can only see a portion of the rainbow, appearing above the ground and centered along the line connecting the observer's eye to the sun.

In a primary rainbow, the outer edge of the arc appears red, and the inner edge appears violet. This rainbow is formed when light enters a water droplet, refracts, is internally reflected off the back of the droplet, and then refracts again upon exiting.

In a secondary rainbow, a second arc appears outside the primary arc, and its color sequence is reversed, with the inner edge being red. This occurs because the light is reflected twice inside the droplet before exiting.

Rainbow visibility

A rainbow appears when water droplets are present in the air and sunlight shines on them from a low angle behind the observer. Therefore, rainbows are usually seen in the west in the morning and in the east in the evening. The most beautiful rainbows occur when half the sky is covered with rain clouds and the observer is facing away from the sun. This creates a bright rainbow against a dark background. Often, a larger but fainter secondary rainbow also appears. It is located about 10° outside the primary rainbow and has its colors in reverse order.

This rainbow effect is also common near waterfalls or fountains. Additionally, this effect can be artificially created by spraying water droplets into the air on a sunny day. On a moonlit night, a lunar or night rainbow sometimes appears. In low light, humans see fewer colors, so lunar rainbows often appear white.

Capturing the entire rainbow in a single frame is difficult, as it requires a 84° viewing angle. For a 35mm camera, this requires a wide-angle lens with a focal length of 19mm or less. However, software that combines multiple overlapping images to create panoramas now makes it easier to capture the entire rainbow and secondary arc.

From above the Earth, such as from an airplane, a rainbow sometimes appears as a complete circle. This can resemble the glory phenomenon, but the glory is usually much smaller, only 5-20°. The sky inside the primary rainbow is brighter than the sky outside. This is because each water droplet is spherical and scatters light across a complete circular disc in the sky. The radius of this disc depends on the wavelength of light; red light scatters at a larger angle than blue light. Across most of the disk, the scattered light of all wavelengths combines to produce the white light that illuminates the sky. At the edge of the disk, the varying wavelengths of the scattered light create the colors of the rainbow.

The light from the primary rainbow is 96% polarized, with the polarization direction parallel to the tangent of the arc. The light from the secondary arc is 90% polarized.

The number of colors in a spectrum or rainbow

For the colors visible to the human eye, the most common and memorable sequence is Isaac Newton's seven-color system—red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. To remember this sequence, one can use the mnemonic phrase "Richard of York Gave Battle in Vain" or the name of a fictional character (Roy G. Biv). This sequence is sometimes reversed and referred to as VIBGYOR. These days, rainbows are often described as having seven colors: red, orange, yellow, green, cyan, blue, and violet. The distinct categorization of primary colors is a characteristic of human perception, and the precise number of primary colors is somewhat arbitrary.

Newton, who believed his own eyesight was not particularly good at distinguishing colors, originally (in 1672) divided the spectrum into five primary colors: red, yellow, green, blue, and violet. He later added orange and indigo, resulting in seven primary colors, matching the number of notes in a musical scale. Newton's decision to divide the visible spectrum into seven colors was based on the beliefs of ancient Greek philosophers, who believed in a connection between colors, musical notes, the known objects in the solar system, and the days of the week. Scholars have noted that the color Newton called "blue" at that time is now called cyan, and "indigo" is now called blue.

The color pattern of a rainbow seen after rain differs from the spectrum, and its colors are less vibrant. Spectral blurring in a rainbow occurs because there is a distribution of exit angles for a given wavelength, rather than a single, fixed angle. Furthermore, a rainbow is a blurred version of a rainbow formed from a point source, since the angular size of the sun (0.5 degrees) is not negligible compared to the width of the rainbow (2 degrees). Therefore, the number of colors in a rainbow can differ from the number of colors in the spectrum, especially if the raindrops are very large or small. Thus, the number of colors in a rainbow varies. However, if the term "rainbow" is used incorrectly to refer to the spectrum, it generally means the number of primary colors in the spectrum.

Besides the red and violet bands, a rainbow also contains bands in the near-infrared and ultraviolet regions, although these bands are not visible to humans. The rainbow only includes frequencies near the visible spectrum because water and air become more transparent to these frequencies, causing the light to scatter. The UV band can sometimes be seen with a camera using black and white film.

The question of whether everyone sees seven colors in a rainbow is related to the theory of linguistic relativity. It has been suggested that there is a universal way of perceiving a rainbow. However, recent research suggests that the number of distinct colors perceived and their names depend on the language used; people who speak languages ​​with fewer color terms perceive fewer distinct colors.

The importance of vitamins in human life | Vitamin deficiency diseases and sources of vitamins

 

Vitamins are essential nutrients that all living organisms require in small amounts. Chemically, they are organic compounds. A compound is considered a vitamin when the body cannot produce it in sufficient quantities and therefore must obtain it from food.

Key Vitamins

Vitamin A

The chemical name for Vitamin A is retinol. It is also known as the anti-xerophthalmic vitamin. Vitamin A is essential for good vision. It also helps protect against infections. This vitamin supports the normal functioning of various parts of the body, such as the skin, hair, nails, glands, teeth, gums, and bones. The most serious problem caused by a deficiency of vitamin A is night blindness. Additionally, it can cause dry eyes due to reduced tear production and may lead to ulcers on the cornea. In children, a deficiency of vitamin A can slow growth, affecting their height. The skin and hair also become dry and dull. The risk of infections increases. Vitamin A is found in fresh fruits, milk, meat, eggs, fish oil, carrots, butter, and green vegetables. The liver converts the yellow or orange pigment called beta-carotene, found in plants, into vitamin A. Vitamin A is essential for the synthesis of the visual pigment rhodopsin. Symptoms of vitamin A deficiency include night blindness, cataracts, xerophthalmia (dry eyes), dry and cracked skin, and increased susceptibility to infections. A cataract occurs when the lens of the eye becomes cloudy and opaque.

Vitamin B

Vitamin B is essential for providing energy to the body. Deficiency of this vitamin can cause several diseases. Several types of vitamin B have been identified. All these types together are called the 'B-complex' vitamins. Although all these types are an integral part of the B-complex, they are also distinct from each other. B-complex vitamins can withstand heat up to 120 degrees Celsius. At higher temperatures, they are destroyed. This vitamin is water-soluble. Its main functions include maintaining healthy nerves and playing an active role in digestion. It increases appetite and provides energy to the body. It also helps in the absorption of nutrients. It is destroyed by alkaline substances even without heat, but it is not destroyed by boiling with acids. Sources of vitamin B complex include tomatoes, whole wheat flour, egg yolk, green leafy vegetables, almonds, walnuts, unpolished rice, plant seeds, betel nuts, oranges, grapes, milk, fresh legumes, fresh peas, lentils, liver, various vegetables, potatoes, nuts, yeast, corn, chickpeas, coconut, pistachios, fresh fruits, amla (Indian gooseberry), yogurt, spinach, cabbage, fish, egg white, oranges, rice bran, and other fruits and vegetables.

vitamin C

Vitamin C is also known as ascorbic acid. It was first isolated by Szent-György. It helps bind the cells of the body together. It aids in the development of various organs. It strengthens the blood vessels of the body. Due to its antihistamine properties, it can be beneficial for common colds and coughs. Its deficiency can cause problems such as bleeding gums, toothache, loose or falling teeth, and excessive bleeding from wounds or cuts. It can also cause dry skin. Appetite may decrease. Severe vitamin C deficiency can lead to scurvy. Vitamin C deficiency can also cause weight loss. It can lead to kidney stones, gallstones, and other types of stones formed by oxalate crystals in the body. It can cause burning or pain while urinating, or diarrhea due to an upset stomach. It can also cause anemia (low red blood cell count). Good sources of vitamin C include citrus fruits such as oranges.

vitamin D

Other names for Vitamin D are:

Vitamin D2 or ergocalciferol and Vitamin D3 or cholecalciferol.

It helps to strengthen and maintain healthy bones. It also helps regulate calcium levels in the body. A deficiency of this vitamin can lead to weak bones and an increased risk of fractures. In children, this condition is called rickets, and in adults, it is called osteomalacia. Additionally, thinning and weakening of the bones is called osteoporosis.

A deficiency can also cause kidney stones, heart problems, and calcium deposits in blood vessels and other organs. These deposits are made of calcium. This can also lead to high blood pressure, high cholesterol, and heart problems. Other symptoms include dizziness, weakness, and headaches. Digestive problems such as diarrhea can also occur. Good sources of Vitamin D include egg yolks, fish oil, vitamin D-fortified milk and butter, and sunlight, which allows the body to produce it.

Vitamin E

Vitamin E plays an important role in the formation of red blood cells in the blood. It is also known as tocopherol. This vitamin helps maintain the normal functioning of various organs and tissues in the body, such as muscles. It protects the body from a harmful form of oxygen called free radicals. This property is known as antioxidant activity. Vitamin E maintains cell membranes, which are essential for cell survival. Vitamin E also helps maintain the balance of fatty acids in the body. In premature babies, a deficiency of vitamin E can lead to a decrease in the number of red blood cells, which can cause anemia.

Historical Non-Cooperation Movement in India | Preparing for the Movement and Leader's Opinions

 

The Non-Cooperation Movement was the first mass movement launched by Mahatma Gandhi. It received widespread support from the general public. In urban areas, the middle class fully supported it, while in rural areas, farmers and tribal communities supported it. The working class also participated. Thus, it became the first truly mass movement. During World War I (1914-1918), the British imposed restrictions on the press and acquired the power to imprison people without trial. These harsh measures were continued based on the recommendations of a committee chaired by Sir Sydney Rowlatt. In response, Mahatma Gandhi launched a nationwide campaign against this law (the Rowlatt Act). In cities across North and West India, life virtually came to a standstill as shops and schools closed in support of the movement. Gandhi and local Congress leaders were arrested.

On April 13, 1919, people gathered at Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar, some to protest the arrest of their leaders and others to attend a fair. Since they were outside the city limits, they were unaware that martial law had been imposed. General Dyer arrived with his troops and opened fire on the peaceful gathering. This massacre became known as the Jallianwala Bagh massacre. It was condemned throughout the country.

In protest, the police opened fire on a peaceful procession in Chauri-Chaura, Uttar Pradesh. An angry mob set fire to the police station, killing some policemen. These events led Gandhi to withdraw the movement, stating, "The Satyagrahis need further training. Therefore, we will resume the movement after this training."

The Beginning of the Non-Cooperation Movement

The Non-Cooperation Movement officially began on August 1, 1920, and the Congress formally adopted it as its official movement by passing a resolution at its session in Kolkata on September 4, 1920.  Those who wanted to end British colonialism in India were urged not to attend schools, colleges, or courts, and to refuse to pay taxes – Nitin Sinha was one of them. In short, everyone was asked to abstain from all forms of cooperation with the British government. Gandhi stated that if non-cooperation was sincerely followed, India would achieve self-rule (Swaraj) within one year. Further extending his movement, he supported the Khilafat Movement, which demanded the restoration of the Caliphate, a symbol of Pan-Islamism, which had recently been abolished by the Turkish leader Kemal Ataturk.

Preparing for the Movement

Gandhi hoped that by combining the Non-Cooperation Movement with the Khilafat Movement, the two main communities in India—Hindus and Muslims—would unite to end colonial rule. These movements certainly generated a wave of mass activism, unprecedented in colonial India. Students boycotted government schools and colleges. Lawyers refused to appear in court. Workers went on strike in many cities. According to government figures, 396 strikes involving six lakh workers in 1921 resulted in a loss of 70 lakh rupees. Discontent also spread to rural areas. Hill tribes defied forest laws. Peasants in Awadh refused to pay taxes. Peasants in Kumaon refused to carry goods for colonial officials. Sometimes, these acts of resistance were carried out even against the orders of local nationalist leaders. Peasants, workers, and others interpreted the movement according to their own understanding; they acted according to their own interests rather than merely following orders, thus giving their own meaning to 'non-cooperation' with colonial rule.

Louis Fischer, the American biographer of Mahatma Gandhi, wrote that "Non-cooperation became synonymous with an era in the life of India and Gandhi. Its approach to peace was negative, but its impact was very positive. It required protest, sacrifice, and discipline. It was a training ground for self-rule." For the first time since the Revolt of 1857, the Non-Cooperation Movement shook the foundations of British rule.

The decision to end the movement

On February 4, 1922, in the village of Chauri-Chaura in the Gorakhpur district, the police attempted to forcibly stop a procession, leading to an angry mob setting fire to the police station, resulting in the deaths of one police officer and 22 constables. This incident deeply affected Gandhiji. In his article in Young India on February 12, 1922, in which he wrote about the decision to end the Non-Cooperation Movement at the Congress meeting in Bardoli, Gandhiji stated, "To prevent the movement from turning violent, I am prepared to bear any insult, any harsh treatment, even death." Following this, Gandhiji focused his attention on constructive work.

Leaders' Opinions

Regarding the suspension of the Non-Cooperation Movement, Motilal Nehru remarked, "If a village in Kanyakumari violated the principle of non-violence, should a village in the Himalayas be punished for it?" Responding to this, Subhas Chandra Bose stated, "Ordering the withdrawal of the movement at a time when public enthusiasm was at its peak was a major disaster for the country." The suspension of the movement affected Gandhi's popularity. On March 10, 1922, Gandhi was arrested, and Judge Broomfield sentenced him to six years in prison for inciting sedition. He was released on February 5, 1924, due to poor health.