Green Revolution in India | Wheat Production and Justification for the Green Revolution

 

During Green Revolution Indian agriculture was transformed into a modern, industrialized system through the adoption of technologies such as high-yielding varieties (HYV) of seeds, mechanized farm equipment, irrigation facilities, and the use of pesticides and fertilizers. This movement in India was primarily led by agricultural scientist M.S. Swaminathan. It was part of a larger Green Revolution initiative launched by Norman Borlaug, which aimed to increase agricultural productivity in developing countries. Through breeding, crop varieties or strains could be selected based on desirable characteristics such as disease resistance, response to fertilizers, product quality, and higher yields. The Green Revolution in India began in 1968 under the leadership of Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri, resulting in increased food grain production in states like Punjab, Haryana, and western Uttar Pradesh. Key achievements of this effort included the development of high-yielding wheat varieties and rust-resistant wheat varieties.

Prominent Individuals and Institutions

Many individuals were honored for their contributions during the Green Revolution in India.

M.S. Swaminathan is considered the chief architect or father of the Green Revolution in India.

C. Subramaniam, the then Minister of Food and Agriculture, and a recipient of the Bharat Ratna award, is regarded as the political architect of the Green Revolution.

Scientists like Atmaram Bhairav ​​Joshi.

Institutions like the Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI).

Wheat Production

The key development was the introduction of high-yielding wheat varieties, including those resistant to wheat rust. These high-yielding varieties (HYVs), along with improved fertilizers and irrigation techniques, led to increased production, making the country self-sufficient in grain and improving agriculture in India. Furthermore, other varieties like Kalyan Sona and Sonalika were developed through cross-breeding with other wheat varieties. The methods used included modern agricultural practices and the application of high-yielding varieties (HYVs). Wheat production yielded the best results in promoting India's self-sufficiency. The use of high-yielding seeds, irrigation facilities, and the enthusiasm of farmers propelled the concept of the Green Revolution forward. However, the excessive use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers had negative impacts on the soil and land (e.g., soil erosion).

Other methods

Other methods include developing irrigation infrastructure, using pesticides, fungicides, and herbicides, land consolidation, land reforms, improving rural infrastructure, access to agricultural credit, using chemical or synthetic fertilizers, implementing sprinkler or drip irrigation systems, and using advanced machinery.

Justification for the Green Revolution

The Green Revolution in India began in late 1966-67 in Punjab. It was part of a development program initiated by international aid agencies and the Indian government.

During British rule, India's agricultural economy was based on exploitative practices. Consequently, when India gained independence, the country faced recurring famines, economic instability, and low productivity. These factors justified the implementation of the Green Revolution as a development strategy in India.

Recurring Famines: In 1964-65 and 1965-66, India experienced two severe droughts, leading to a food crisis and famine for the country's growing population. Modern agricultural technologies seemed to offer a way to address the famine problem. Debate continues regarding famines in pre-independence India, with some arguing that British tax and agricultural policies exacerbated the situation in the 19th and 20th centuries, while others downplay such colonial impacts.

Lack of Finance: Small farmers found it very difficult to obtain finance and credit at reasonable rates from the government and banks, making them easy prey for moneylenders. They borrowed from landlords who charged high interest rates and later exploited farm laborers to repay the debt. Inadequate financing during the Green Revolution led to numerous problems and hardships for Indian farmers. The government also failed to provide any assistance to indebted farmers.

Low Productivity: Given India's rapidly growing population, traditional agricultural practices were unable to produce sufficient food. By the 1960s, this low productivity had made the food crisis in India more severe than in other developing countries. Advances in agricultural technology offered opportunities to increase productivity.

Subhash Chandra Bose Social Work | Birth and Family Life

 

Subhas Chandra Bose was a prominent and leading figure in India's freedom struggle. During World War II, with the support of Japan, he established the Indian National Army (INA) to fight against the British. His slogans, "Jai Hind" and "Give me blood, and I will give you freedom," became very popular. The people of India affectionately call him "Netaji" (Leader).

Some historians believe that when Netaji sought help from Japan and Germany, the British government ordered its intelligence agencies to eliminate him in 1941.

On July 5, 1943, as the Supreme Commander, Netaji addressed the troops in front of the Singapore Town Hall and raised the slogan "Delhi Chalo!" He led the INA, along with the Japanese army, in fierce battles against British and Commonwealth forces in Burma, Imphal, and Kohima.

On October 21, 1943, as the Supreme Commander of the INA, Bose established the Azad Hind Government, which was recognized by the governments of 11 countries, including Germany, Japan, the Philippines, Korea, China, Italy, Manchukuo, and Ireland. Japan handed over the Andaman and Nicobar Islands to this provisional government. Subhas visited these islands and renamed them.

In 1944, the INA launched another attack on the British and liberated parts of India. The Battle of Kohima, fought from April 4 to June 22, 1944, was a fierce battle. The Japanese army had to retreat, which was a significant turning point.

On July 6, 1944, he sent a message to Mahatma Gandhi from the Rangoon radio station, seeking his blessings and good wishes for victory in this decisive battle.

The circumstances of Subhas Chandra Bose's death remain controversial. In Japan, his martyrdom day is observed every year on August 18, but his family in India still believes that Subhas Chandra Bose did not die in 1945. They believe he was later kept under house arrest in Russia. If this is not true, then the Indian government did not release the documents related to his death because, according to them, Netaji did not die.

On January 16, 2014 (Thursday), the Kolkata High Court ordered the formation of a special bench to hear a public interest litigation (PIL) seeking the release of intelligence documents related to the mystery surrounding Netaji's disappearance.

On the 75th anniversary of the Azad Hind Government, in 2018, Prime Minister Narendra Modi hoisted the Indian national flag at the Red Fort, a first in Indian history. January 23, 2021, marked the 125th birth anniversary of Netaji, which the Government of India celebrated as 'Parakram Diwas' (Day of Valor).

Birth and Family Life

Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose was born on January 23, 1897, in the city of Cuttack, Odisha, into a Hindu Bengali Kayastha family. His father's name was Janakinath Bose and his mother's name was Prabhabati. Janakinath Bose was a renowned lawyer in Cuttack. He initially worked as a government lawyer, but later started his own private practice. He served for a long time in the Cuttack Municipal Corporation and was also a member of the Bengal Legislative Assembly. Prabhabati Devi's father was Gangamohan Datta. The Datta family was a well-known and wealthy family in Kolkata. Prabhabati and Janakinath Bose had a total of 14 children – 6 daughters and 8 sons. Subhas was their ninth child and their fifth son. Among all his brothers, Subhas was most attached to Sharad Chandra. Sharad Babu was the second son of Prabhabati and Janakinath. Subhas used to call him 'Mejhda' (elder brother). Sharad Babu's wife's name was Vibhavati.

From Schooling to the Indian Civil Service: A Journey

After completing his primary education at the Protestant School in Cuttack, he joined Ravenshaw Collegiate School in 1909. The personality of the school's principal, Benimadhab Das, had a profound impact on Subhas. At just fifteen, Subhas had read all of Vivekananda's works. In 1915, despite being unwell, he passed the Intermediate examination in the second division. In 1916, while studying for his BA (Honours) in Philosophy at Presidency College, a dispute arose between the teachers and students. Subhas led the students, which resulted in his expulsion from Presidency College for one year and a ban on appearing for examinations. He appeared for the recruitment examination for the 49th Bengal Regiment, but was declared unfit for the army due to poor eyesight. He somehow managed to get admission to Scottish Church College, but his heart still yearned to join the army. To utilize his free time, he appeared for the Territorial Army examination and was recruited as a private soldier at Fort William. He was worried that he might not perform as well in the BA examination as he had in the Intermediate, so he worked hard and passed the BA (Honours) examination in 1919, securing second place in the Calcutta University.

His father wanted Subhas to join the Indian Civil Service, but given his age, he had only one chance to pass the examination. He asked his father for 24 hours to decide whether to take the examination or not. He pondered the decision throughout the night. Finally, he decided to take the examination and left for England on September 15, 1919. Unable to find a suitable school in London to prepare for the examination, Subhas somehow managed to get admission to King's College, Cambridge, to study for the Tripos (Honours) examination in Moral and Mental Science. This solved his problem of accommodation and food. Attending university was merely a pretext; his real goal was to pass the ICS examination. Therefore, in 1920, he passed the examination and secured the fourth position on the merit list.

Subsequently, Subhas wrote to his elder brother, Sarat Chandra Bose, seeking his advice. He wondered how he could serve the British government when the teachings of Maharishi Dayanand Saraswati and Maharishi Aurobindo Ghosh dominated his thoughts and heart. On April 22, 1921, he resigned from the ICS by writing a letter to E.S. Montagu, the Secretary of State for India. He also wrote a letter to Deshbandhu Chittaranjan Das. However, when his mother, Prabhawati, wrote to him saying that "no matter what father, family, or anyone else says, she is proud of her son's decision," Subhas returned to India in June 1921 with a Tripos (Honours) degree in Moral and Mental Science.

Mahatma Gandhi's Salt Satyagraha | The Dandi March

 

The Salt March, also known as the Salt Satyagraha, Dandi March, or Dandi Satyagraha, was a nonviolent civil disobedience movement led by Mahatma Gandhi in British India. This 24-day march, from March 12 to April 6, 1930, involved direct action against the British salt monopoly through nonviolent protest and tax resistance. Another reason for the march was the need for a strong start to the civil disobedience movement to inspire more people to follow Gandhi's example. Gandhi began the march with 78 trusted volunteers. The march covered 387 kilometers (240 miles) from the Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi (then known as Navsari, now in the state of Gujarat). On April 6, 1930, at 8:30 a.m., when Gandhi broke the British salt law, millions of Indians participated in the protest against the salt tax, launching a mass movement.

After making salt by evaporation at Dandi, Gandhi continued south along the coast, making salt and addressing the crowds along the way. The Congress Party planned a satyagraha at the Dharasana salt works, 40 km (25 miles) south of Dandi. However, Gandhi was arrested on the night of May 4–5, 1930, a few days before the planned action at Dharasana. The Dandi March and the subsequent Dharasana Satyagraha brought the Indian independence movement worldwide attention through extensive newspaper and newsreel coverage. The satyagraha against the salt tax lasted for about a year, ending with Gandhi's release from prison and negotiations with Viceroy Lord Irwin at the Second Round Table Conference. More than 60,000 Indians were imprisoned as a result of the Salt Satyagraha.

The Salt Satyagraha movement was based on Gandhi's principles of nonviolent resistance, which he called satyagraha, roughly meaning "truth-force." Literally, it is composed of the Sanskrit words "satya" meaning "truth" and "agraha" meaning "firmness". In the early 1920s, the Indian National Congress adopted Satyagraha as its main strategy for achieving Indian autonomy and self-rule from British rule, appointing Gandhi to lead and organize the movement. Gandhi targeted the 1882 British Salt Law as the first objective of Satyagraha. The news of the Dandi March and the brutality inflicted by the colonial police on hundreds of nonviolent protesters in Daskoi spread worldwide, demonstrating that nonviolent resistance was an effective method of fighting social and political injustice. In the 1960s civil rights movement for African-American and other minority rights, Gandhi's teachings on Satyagraha and the Dandi March profoundly influenced American activists Martin Luther King Jr., James Bevel, and others. This march was the largest organized protest against British rule following the Non-Cooperation Movement of 1920-22. It came immediately after the Indian National Congress's declaration of complete independence and the celebration of Independence Day on January 26, 1930. It garnered global attention, bolstering the Indian independence movement and sparking a nationwide civil disobedience movement that continued in Gujarat until 1934.

The Dandi March

On March 12, 1930, Gandhiji and 78 Satyagrahis, representing almost every region, caste, religion, and sect of India, began their 385-kilometer march to the coastal village of Dandi in the Navsari district of Gujarat. Their starting point was the Sabarmati Ashram. The Salt March was also called the 'White River' because everyone wore white khadi clothes during the march.

According to the government newspaper, The Statesman, which generally underestimated the crowds at Gandhiji's events, 100,000 people gathered on the road connecting Sabarmati and Ahmedabad. The first day's 21-kilometer march ended in the village of Asalali, where Gandhiji addressed approximately 4,000 people. In Asalali and other villages along the route, volunteers collected donations, registered new Satyagrahis, and accepted resignations from village officials who had decided to cease cooperation with the British administration.

As they entered each village, people welcomed them with drums and music. In his speeches, Gandhiji described the salt tax as inhumane and called the Salt Satyagraha the 'struggle of the poor'. They slept under the open sky every night. They asked the villagers only for food and water for bathing. Gandhiji believed that this would draw the poor into the struggle for Swaraj (self-rule), which he considered essential for ultimate victory.

Thousands of Satyagrahis and leaders, including Sarojini Naidu, joined them. More people joined the march every day, until the procession stretched for at least 3 kilometers. To keep their spirits high, they sang the bhajan 'Raghupati Raghav Raja Ram' as they marched. In Surat, 30,000 people welcomed them. When they reached Dandi railway station, more than 50,000 people had gathered. Foreign journalists and three Bombay film companies, who shot newsreel footage, helped make Gandhi a household name in Europe and America (in the late 1930s, Time magazine named him 'Person of the Year').

Upon reaching the seashore on April 5, Gandhiji was interviewed by a reporter from the Associated Press. He said:

"I cannot refrain from praising the government's policy of non-interference which it adopted throughout the march...I wish I could believe that this policy of non-interference was due to a genuine change of heart or thought. Their contempt for public opinion in the Legislative Assembly and their repressive measures confirm that the policy of ruthless exploitation of India will continue unabated. Therefore, the only reason for this policy of non-interference is that the British government, however powerful, is sensitive to world opinion and will not suppress a political movement of dissent, provided that dissent remains peaceful and non-violent...It remains to be seen whether the government will tolerate the actual violation of the salt law by millions tomorrow in the same way as they tolerated this march."

The following morning, after offering prayers, Gandhiji picked up a piece of salty earth and said, "With this, I will shake the foundations of the British Empire." He then boiled it in seawater and made illegal salt. He also appealed to his thousands of followers to make salt on the beach "wherever possible" and to teach the villagers the process of making this illegal, yet essential, commodity.

Jallianwala Bagh massacre | Historical Day, Details of the Incident and The Shooting

 

The Jallianwala Bagh massacre took place on April 13, 1919 (Vaisakhi day) at Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar, Punjab, India, near the Golden Temple. A ​​peaceful gathering was taking place in protest against the Rowlatt Act when British officer General Dyer ordered his troops to open fire on the unarmed crowd. More than 400 people were killed and over 2,000 were injured in the incident. The official list of martyrs at the Deputy Commissioner's office in Amritsar contains 484 names, while the Jallianwala Bagh memorial lists 388 names. According to British records, 379 people were killed and 200 injured, including 337 men, 41 minor boys, and a six-week-old baby. Non-official estimates put the death toll at over 1,500 and the number of injured at over 2,000.

If any single event had the greatest impact on the Indian independence movement, it was this horrific massacre. It is considered the beginning of the end of British rule in India.

In 1997, Queen Elizabeth II paid tribute to the martyrs at the memorial. In 2013, British Prime Minister David Cameron also visited the memorial. In the visitors' book, he wrote, "This was a shameful event in British history."

Events

Historical Day

April 13, 1919, was the day of Baisakhi. Baisakhi is a major festival celebrated across India, but it is particularly important for farmers in Punjab and Haryana, who celebrate the new year after harvesting their Rabi crop. On this very day, April 13, 1699, the tenth and last Sikh Guru, Guru Gobind Singh, established the Khalsa Panth. Therefore, Baisakhi is the biggest festival of Punjab and the surrounding regions, and Sikhs celebrate it as the birthday of their community. A fair has been held in Amritsar on this day for centuries, and on that day, thousands of people from far and wide gathered in Amritsar to visit the Golden Temple (Sri Harmandir Sahib) and celebrate Baisakhi. Many children, women, and elderly people had gathered peacefully at Jallianwala Bagh, located about 500 meters from the temple, to celebrate the festival.

British Intentions

During World War I (1914-1918), Indian leaders and the general public openly supported the British government. The British government deployed 1.3 million Indian soldiers and service personnel to Europe, Africa, and the Middle East, of whom 43,000 were killed in the war. After the war ended, Indian leaders and the public expected the British government to cooperate and adopt a more lenient approach, but instead, the British government implemented the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms, which were the complete opposite of these expectations.

However, anti-British sentiments had grown in Punjab during World War I, which was suppressed through the India Defence Act of 1915. In 1918, a sedition committee, chaired by British judge Sydney Rowlatt, was formed to investigate whether foreign powers were promoting anti-British activities in India, particularly in Punjab and Bengal. Based on the committee's recommendations, the Rowlatt Act was implemented in India. It was an extension of the 1915 India Defence Act, aimed at suppressing the freedom movement. This law granted the British government even more powers, such as censorship of the press, arbitrary detention without trial, arrest without warrant, and trials before special tribunals in secret courts without any accountability. Protests erupted across the country, and mass arrests took place nationwide.

Gandhi

By then, Gandhi had returned to India from South Africa, and his popularity was steadily increasing. He called for protests against the Rowlatt Act. The British government wanted to suppress this movement by arresting more leaders and citizens under this law and meting out harsh punishments. This further inflamed public anger, and people disrupted railway and postal services. The movement reached its peak in the first week of April. The streets of Lahore and Amritsar were filled with people. Approximately 5,000 people had gathered at Jallianwala Bagh. Many British officials considered this a recurrence of the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857 and were determined to crush it by any means necessary.

British Atrocities

Two leaders of the movement, Satyapal and Saifuddin Kitchlu, were arrested and sentenced to long prison terms. On April 10, 1919, their release was demanded before the Deputy Commissioner of Amritsar. However, the British army opened fire on the peaceful and orderly crowd, further escalating tensions. On that day, several banks, government buildings, town halls, and railway stations were set on fire. Five European civilians were killed in this violence. In retaliation, British soldiers opened fire indiscriminately on Indian people, killing between 8 and 20. Amritsar remained peaceful for the next two days, but the violence spread to other parts of Punjab, resulting in the deaths of three more European civilians. To quell the unrest, the British government imposed martial law in most parts of Punjab.

Details of the Incident

On April 13, 1919, during the religious festival of Baisakhi, a gathering took place at Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar, where several leaders were scheduled to deliver speeches. Despite a curfew being in effect in the city, hundreds of people who had come to attend the fair and celebrate Baisakhi with their families also gathered there after hearing about the meeting. While the leaders were addressing the crowd from a mound in the garden, Brigadier General Reginald Dyer arrived with 90 British soldiers, all armed with loaded rifles. Seeing the soldiers, the leaders asked the people to remain calm.

The Shooting

The soldiers surrounded the garden and, without any warning, opened fire on the unarmed crowd. A total of 1,650 rounds were fired in 10 minutes. At that time, Jallianwala Bagh was an open space behind a row of houses. There was only a narrow path, and buildings surrounded it on all sides. There was no way to escape. Some people jumped into the only well in the garden to save their lives, but the well soon filled with bodies. Jallianwala Bagh was once the property of a man named Jalli.

It was a tragedy. A plaque in the garden states that 120 bodies were recovered from the well. A curfew was imposed in the city, preventing the injured from being taken to the hospital for treatment. Many people died in agony on the spot. According to the office of the Deputy Commissioner of Amritsar, 484 people were killed, while the Jallianwala Bagh memorial lists the names of 388 martyrs. British records indicate that 200 people were injured and 379 were killed, including 337 men, 41 minor boys, and a six-week-old baby. Non-official estimates suggest that over 1000 people were killed and over 2000 were injured. Official figures state that 379 people were killed, while Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya estimated that at least 1300 people were killed. Swami Shraddhanand put the death toll at over 1500, and Dr. Smith, the then Civil Surgeon of Amritsar, estimated it at over 1800.

Indian independence movement | Background and Early British Colonialism in India

 

The Indian Independence Movement was a series of diverse activities and events, with the primary objective of ending British rule in India. While the Revolt of 1857 is often referred to as the 'First War of Independence,' the Indian Independence Movement actually began earlier, at various times. This movement continued not only until 1947, but also afterward, culminating with the liberation of Goa.

The first nationalist revolutionary movement for Indian independence began in Bengal. It later evolved into the newly formed Indian National Congress, where prominent liberal leaders demanded the right for Indians in British India to take the Indian Civil Service examination and greater economic rights for the local population. A more radical approach to self-rule emerged in the early 20th century.

The Indian independence movement in the 1920s was characterized by the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi and the adoption of his principles of nonviolence and civil disobedience by the Congress Party. Prominent followers of Gandhi included Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhas Chandra Bose, Sardar Patel, Abdul Ghaffar Khan, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, and others. Intellectuals such as Rabindranath Tagore, Subramanyam Bharati, and Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay fostered a spirit of nationalism. Women leaders like Sarojini Naidu, Vijayalakshmi Pandit, Pritilata Waddedar, and Kasturba Gandhi promoted the emancipation of Indian women and their participation in the freedom struggle.

Some leaders adopted a more radical approach, which became even more popular after the Rowlatt Act, which allowed for indefinite detention without trial. Protests against this law erupted across India, particularly in Punjab, where they were brutally suppressed, culminating in the Jallianwala Bagh massacre.

The ideology of the Indian independence movement evolved continuously. Initially, it was primarily focused on opposing colonial rule, but it also aimed to establish an independent, economically developed, secular, democratic, republican, and civil liberties-oriented political framework. After the 1930s, the movement acquired a strong socialist orientation. It culminated in the Indian Independence Act of 1947, which ended Crown rule and partitioned British India into India and Pakistan.

Background

Early British Colonialism in India

The first European explorer to reach India via the Atlantic Ocean was the Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama, who arrived at Calicut in 1498 in search of spices. Exactly a century later, the Dutch and British established trading posts in the Indian subcontinent, with the first British trading center being established in Surat in 1613.

Over the next two centuries, the British defeated the Portuguese and the Dutch, but their rivalry with the French continued. The decline of the Mughal Empire in the first half of the 18th century gave the British an opportunity to consolidate their power in Indian politics. In the Battle of Plassey, the East India Company's army defeated the Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-Daulah, and the company emerged as a major power in Indian affairs. Following the Battle of Buxar in 1764, it gained administrative control over Bengal, Bihar, and the Midnapore region of Odisha.

After the defeat of Tipu Sultan, most of South India came under either direct British rule or indirect political control through subsidiary alliances. Later, the Company annexed the territories of the Maratha Empire after several wars. Following the defeat of the Sikh armies in the First (1845-46) and Second (1848-49) Anglo-Sikh Wars, most of Punjab was incorporated into the British Empire in 1849.

Early Revolts

Veer Azhagu Muthu Kone was one of the early rebels against British rule in Tamil Nadu. He became a military leader in the town of Ettayapuram and fought against the British and Marudhanayakkan's forces, but was defeated. He was executed in 1757. Marudhanayakkan Pillai was a commander in the Madras Army of the British East India Company; he was appointed as the ruler of Madurai. The British and the Nawab of Arcot appointed him to suppress the rebellion of the poligars (also known as palayakkarars) in South India. Later, after the fall of the Madurai Nayak dynasty, he was entrusted with the administration of the Madurai region. He later rebelled against the British and the Nawab of Arcot. A dispute arose between him and the Nawab of Arcot, and three of the Nawab's associates were bribed to capture him. He was captured during his morning prayers (Thozhugai) and executed at Samathipuram near Madurai on October 15, 1764.

Across eastern India and the country, tribal communities staged numerous revolts against the British and their collaborators, especially landlords and moneylenders. The frequency of revolts increased after the Battle of Buxar in 1764, when the East India Company gained the right to collect revenue in Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha. One of the earliest recorded revolts was led by Jagannath Singh, Subal Singh, and Shyam Gunjam against the East India Company in Bengal (Jharkhand and West Bengal) around 1766. Vishnu Mankhi took up arms in 1771. The Rangpur Revolt took place in the Rangpur region of Bengal from 1782 to 1783. Following Vishnu Mankhi's revolt in Jharkhand, several revolts occurred in the region, including the Bhumij revolt in Manbhum from 1798 to 1799. In 1800, the Chero rebellion took place in Palamu under the leadership of Bhukan Singh, and the Munda community in the Tamar region staged two rebellions: the first in 1807 led by Dhukan Manjhi and the second in 1819-20 led by Budhu and Kanta. The Ho rebellion occurred when the Ho community, located near Chaibasa along the Roro River in West Singhbhum, first came into contact with the British in 1820-1821, but they were defeated by the technologically superior British army. The Bhumij rebellion in the Jamshedpur region of Bengal was led by Ganga Narayan Singh, who had also led the Chuar rebellion in these areas from 1771 to 1809. Syed Mir Nisar Ali, also known as Titumir, was an Islamic religious leader who led a peasant revolt against Hindu landlords and the British in Bengal during the 19th century. With his followers, he built a bamboo fort in the village of Narkelberia, which is famous in Bengali folklore. When British soldiers attacked the fort, Titumir died from his injuries on November 19, 1831. These rebellions led to larger regional movements in and around Jharkhand, such as the Kol rebellion led by Singhrai and Bindrai Manjhi, in which the Kol (Ho, Bhumij, Munda, and Oraon) communities revolted against 'outsiders' from 1830 to 1833.

Mangal Pandey - The Indian Soldier | The Mutiny and The Hanging

Mangal Pandey (died April 8, 1857) was an Indian soldier who played a significant role in the Indian Rebellion of 1857. This rebellion led to the downfall of the East India Company and the establishment of British rule in India through the Government of India Act of 1858. He was a sepoys in the 34th Regiment of the Bengal Native Infantry. In 1984, the Government of India issued a postage stamp in his memory. His life and actions have also been depicted in several Indian films.

Early life: Mangal Pandey was born in the village of Nagwa in the Ballia district of Uttar Pradesh, into a Brahmin family. Pandey joined the Bengal Army in 1849. In March 1857, he was a sepoy in the 5th Company of the 34th Bengal Native Infantry.

The Mutiny

On the afternoon of March 29, 1857, Lieutenant Baillie, the adjutant of the 34th Bengal Native Infantry stationed at Barrackpore, received word that several soldiers in his regiment were agitated. He was also told that one of them, Mangal Pandey, was wandering around near the regiment's guardhouse with a loaded rifle, inciting mutiny and threatening to shoot the first Englishman he saw. Later investigations revealed that, amidst the unrest among the soldiers and perhaps under the influence of bhang (marijuana), Pandey had taken his weapon and, upon seeing a detachment of British soldiers disembarking from a steamer near the cantonment, rushed towards the guardhouse.

Baillie immediately grabbed his weapon and ran towards the soldiers. Pandey stood behind a field gun in front of the 34th Regiment's guardhouse, aimed at Baillie, and fired. The bullet missed Baillie but struck his horse in the belly, causing both horse and rider to fall to the ground. Baillie dismounted, drew his pistol, and advanced towards Pandey, firing. He missed. Before Baillie could draw his sword, Pandey attacked him with his heavy Indian sword, and, along with his companion, struck Baillie on the shoulder and neck, knocking him to the ground. Another soldier, Sheikh Paltu, intervened and tried to restrain Pandey, who was reloading his rifle.

A British Sergeant-Major, Huson, arrived on the parade ground at the call of an Indian Naik (corporal). Huson ordered Jemadar Ishwar Prasad, the Indian officer in charge of the guard, to arrest Pandey. The Jemadar replied that his NCOs had gone for help and that he could not arrest Pandey alone. Huson then ordered Ishwar Prasad to stand in the guard line with his weapon. Meanwhile, a crowd arrived on the parade ground shouting, "Where is he? Where is he?" Huson said to Lieutenant Baag, "For your own safety, move to the right, sir. The soldiers will shoot you!" Just then, Pandey fired his gun.

Huson lunged at Pandey while grappling with Lieutenant Baag. As Pandey turned towards him, Huson fell to the ground, shot by Pandey's gun. Hearing the gunshot, other soldiers rushed out of the barracks; they all watched what happened. At this time, Sheikh Paltu, trying to protect the two Englishmen, pleaded with the other soldiers for help. When the soldiers started throwing stones and shoes at them, Sheikh Paltu asked the guards for help to arrest Pandey, but they threatened to shoot him if he didn't let the rebel go.

Some of the quarter-guard soldiers moved forward and attacked the two fallen officers. They then threatened Sheikh Paltu and ordered him to release Pandey, whom he was vainly trying to restrain. But Paltu refused to let go of Pandey until Baag and the Sergeant-Major were able to get to their feet. By now, Paltu himself had been wounded and had to let go. He retreated in one direction, while Baag and Huson retreated in the other, both of them struck by the butts of the soldiers' muskets.

General Hersee's Intervention

Meanwhile, the commanding officer of Barrackpore, Major General John Bennet Hersee, was informed of the incident. He immediately rushed to the guardhouse with his two officer sons. It was now midday, and soldiers of the 43rd Bengal Native Infantry Regiment, who were not on duty, had joined the crowd in the parade ground. Since not all of them were armed, Hersee feared a major mutiny might erupt. He therefore ordered the British soldiers to assemble at the Governor-General's residence.

Seeing the chaos in the armory of the 34th Bengal Native Infantry, Hersee approached the guard, drew his pistol, and ordered them to arrest Mangal Pandey and carry out their duty. The general warned that anyone who disobeyed would be shot. The guard moved forward, following Hersee towards Pandey. Pandey placed the barrel of his rifle against his chest and pulled the trigger with his foot. He fell to the ground, bloodied, his regimental jacket ablaze, but he was not seriously injured.

The situation was now under control of the British and Indian officers. "Frightened and trembling," Mangal Pandey was taken to the regimental hospital for treatment.

The Hanging

Pande recovered, and his trial took place in less than a week. When asked if he was intoxicated, he firmly stated that he had mutinied of his own volition and had not been instigated by anyone else. Three Sikh soldiers from the quarter guard testified that Jamadar Ishwar Prasad had ordered them not to arrest Pande, for which he was sentenced to death along with Pande.

Mangal Pande was hanged in front of all the Indian and British soldiers stationed at Barrackpore on April 8, 1857. The Delhi Gazette of April 18th published a detailed account of the execution, stating that Pande refused to give any information and that the event had a "very bad effect on the soldiers of the regiment present."

Jamadar Ishwar Prasad was hanged separately on April 21. Unlike the stoic Mangal Pande, the Jamadar expressed remorse for his actions and implored the assembled soldiers to obey their officers in the future.

Indira Gandhi ( India's first women prime minister ) | Early life and career.

Indira Priyadarshini Gandhi (19 November 1917 – 31 October 1984) served as the Prime Minister of India for three consecutive terms from 1966 to 1977 and again from 1980 until her assassination in 1984. She was India's first female Prime Minister.

Early Life and Career

Indira was born on 19 November 1917 into the politically influential Nehru family. Her father was Jawaharlal Nehru and her mother was Kamala Nehru. She had no blood or marital relation with Mahatma Gandhi. Her father, Jawaharlal Nehru, was a key figure in the Indian independence movement and became the first Prime Minister of independent India.

After completing her schooling in 1934-35, Indira enrolled at Visva-Bharati University, established by Rabindranath Tagore at Shantiniketan. Rabindranath Tagore himself gave her the name "Priyadarshini". She then went to England and took the entrance examination for Oxford University, but failed. After spending a few months at Badminton School in Bristol, she gained admission to Somerville College, Oxford, after passing the examination in 1937. During this time, she frequently met Feroze Gandhi. They were married on 16 March 1942 in a private Arya Samaj-Vedic ceremony at Anand Bhawan in Allahabad.

After returning to India from Oxford in 1941, she joined the Indian independence movement. In the 1950s, she informally served as her father's personal assistant during his tenure as the first Prime Minister of India. After her father's death in 1964, she was appointed as a member of the Rajya Sabha. Later, she became the Minister of Information and Broadcasting in Lal Bahadur Shastri's cabinet.

After the sudden death of Lal Bahadur Shastri, the then Congress Party president, K. Kamaraj played a crucial role in bringing Indira Gandhi to power as Prime Minister. Gandhi quickly demonstrated that she could win elections and dominate her opponents based on her popularity. She implemented more left-leaning economic policies and promoted agricultural productivity. Following the decisive victory in the 1971 Indo-Pakistani War, during a period of instability, she imposed a state of emergency in 1975.  She and the Congress Party suffered their first electoral defeat in the 1977 general elections. After returning to power in 1980, she faced an escalating conflict with Sikh separatists, primarily in Punjab, which ultimately culminated in her assassination by her own bodyguards in 1984.

Early Life

Indira was born on November 19, 1917, to Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru and his wife, Kamla Nehru. She was their only child. The Nehru family had roots in Brahmin families of Jammu and Kashmir and Delhi. Her maternal grandfather, Motilal Nehru, was a wealthy barrister from Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh. Jawaharlal Nehru was a prominent member of the Indian National Congress. Her father, Motilal Nehru, was a popular leader of the Indian independence movement. At the time of Indira's birth, Jawaharlal Nehru had joined the independence movement under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi.

Growing up under the care of her mother, who was mostly occupied with household chores due to poor health, Indira developed a sense of security and a somewhat reserved personality. Her grandfather and father's constant involvement in national politics made it difficult for her to socialize with friends. She had disagreements with her aunts (her father's sisters), including Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit, which continued into the political arena.

Indira formed an organization for children called the 'Monkey Brigade,' which made a small but significant contribution to the Indian independence movement by helping Congress leaders distribute sensitive publications and prohibited materials, and by participating in protests and flag marches. A frequently told story is that in the early 1930s, she secretly carried a crucial document about a major revolutionary plan from her father's house, which was under police surveillance, in her school bag.

In 1936, her mother, Kamla Nehru, passed away after a long illness with tuberculosis. Indira was 18 at the time, so she never experienced a stable family life during her childhood. She studied at prominent Indian, European, and British schools such as Shantiniketan, Badminton School, and Oxford. In the late 1930s, while studying at Somerville College, Oxford University in England, she became a member of the London-based Indian League, a pro-independence organization. While living in Europe and Britain, she met Parsi Congress activist Feroze Gandhi, and on March 16, 1942, just before the Quit India Movement launched by Mahatma Gandhi and the Congress Party, they married in a private Arya Samaj-Vedic ceremony at Anand Bhawan, Allahabad. In September 1942, the British authorities arrested her and imprisoned her without any charges. After more than 243 days in jail, she was released on May 13, 1943. In 1944, Indira and Feroze Gandhi's first child, Rajiv Gandhi, was born, and two years later, Sanjay Gandhi.

At the time of the Partition of India in 1947, she helped organize refugee camps and provide medical aid to the millions of refugees who had fled from Pakistan. This was her first major step into public service.

The Gandhi family later settled in Allahabad, where Feroze worked for a Congress Party newspaper and an insurance company. Their marriage was initially happy, but later, when Indira moved to New Delhi to live with her father, who was living alone and under great stress at 3 Motilal Nehru Marg (later renamed Teen Murti Marg) as Prime Minister, she became his trusted secretary and nurse. Her sons lived with her, but she eventually separated from Feroze, although they remained legally married.

When India's first general election came in 1951, Indira campaigned for both her father and her husband, who was contesting the Rae Bareli seat. Feroze had not consulted Nehru about contesting the election, and although he won, he decided to live separately in Delhi. Feroze established himself as a leader against political corruption by exposing a major scandal in government insurance companies, forcing Nehru's close associate, the Finance Minister, to resign.

At the height of their marital difficulties, Indira separated from her husband. However, her relationship with Feroze improved after his heart attack in 1958, shortly after a by-election. They grew closer during Feroze's recovery in Kashmir, where Indira cared for him. However, on September 8, 1960, while Indira was on a foreign trip with her father, Feroze passed away.

Indian Rebellion of 1857 | The Expansion of the East India Company and Causes of the Revolt

The Indian Rebellion of 1857 was a major uprising against the rule of the British East India Company in India in 1857–58, which acted as the supreme power on behalf of the British Crown. The rebellion began on 10 May 1857 with a mutiny of Indian soldiers (Sepoys) of the Company at Meerut, 40 miles (64 km) northeast of Delhi. It later spread to the Gangetic Plain and parts of Central India, though there were also uprisings in the north and east. This rebellion posed a serious military threat to British power in the region, and it was not fully suppressed until the defeat of the rebels at Gwalior on 20 June 1858. On 1 November 1858, the British granted amnesty to all rebels not involved in murder, although they did not formally declare an end to hostilities until 8 July 1859.

The name of this rebellion is a matter of debate, and it has been called the Sepoy Mutiny, the Indian Mutiny, the Great Rebellion, the Revolt of 1857, and the First War of Independence.

The Expansion of the East India Company

Under the leadership of Robert Clive, the East India Company won the Battle of Plassey in 1757. The subsequent treaty granted the British the right to trade tax-free in Bengal. After winning the Battle of Buxar in 1764, the British gained complete control over Bengal. These two victories greatly enhanced British power and demonstrated that their military strength was superior to that of traditional Indian armies. The company soon expanded its territory around its bases in Bombay and Madras; later, the Anglo-Mysore Wars (1766-1799) and the Anglo-Maratha Wars (1772-1818) brought even larger parts of India under its control.

At the end of the 18th century, Governor-General Wellesley initiated a two-decade process of rapid expansion of the company's territories. This was achieved through subsidiary alliances with local rulers or through direct military annexation. Subsidiary alliances created princely states ruled by Hindu maharajas and Muslim nawabs. In 1843, the East India Company annexed Sindh after a bloody war. After the death of Maharaja Ranjit Singh in 1839, the weakened Sikh empire of Punjab came under British influence, and after the Second Anglo-Sikh War in 1849, Punjab, the North-West Frontier Province, and Kashmir were annexed. However, under the Treaty of Amritsar in 1846, Kashmir was immediately handed over to the Dogra dynasty of Jammu, becoming a princely state. In 1853, the title and annual pension of Nana Sahib, the adopted son of the last Maratha Peshwa, Baji Rao, were revoked. Berar was annexed in 1854 and Awadh in 1856.

Causes of the Revolt

The Revolt of 1857 was caused by several political, economic, religious, military, and social reasons.

Differences in Perspective

Many historians believe that the general public at that time thought that the British wanted to forcibly or deceptively convert them to Christianity. This was not entirely wrong; some Company officials did indeed promote conversions. However, the Company never officially sanctioned such conversions. The Company knew that religion could be a cause of rebellion in traditional Indian society. Earlier, in the 16th century, one reason for the decline of the Portuguese in India and Japan was their attempt to forcibly impose Christianity on the people.

Under Lord Dalhousie's Doctrine of Lapse, several states, such as Jhansi, Awadh, Satara, Nagpur, and Sambalpur, were annexed to British territory, and their rulers were made pensioners of the British government. The royal families, landlords, and soldiers became unemployed and powerless. They were ready to take revenge for the humiliation and loss of power inflicted by the British. During Lord Dalhousie's eight-year rule, the Company annexed ten million square miles of territory. Furthermore, many soldiers in the East India Company's Bengal Army were recruited from Awadh and were not unaware of the events happening there. The auction of the Nagpur royal family's jewels in Calcutta was seen as an insult to the royal family.

The Indians were also angered by the harsh rule of the Company, which was rapidly expanding and imposing Western culture. The British declared many customs prevalent among Hindus and Muslims at that time illegal, as they were considered undesirable by the British. This included the abolition of sati (widow burning). It is noteworthy that the Sikhs had already abolished this practice, and the famous social reformer of Bengal, Raja Ram Mohan Roy, was campaigning against it. These laws created resentment among certain sections of society, especially in Bengal. The British also abolished the practice of child marriage and banned female infanticide. They also abolished the practice of Thagi (religious banditry), though there is debate about whether Thagi was a religious cult or simply a group of common robbers.

Indians considered the British judicial system to be unjust. In 1853, the British Prime Minister, Lord Aberdeen, opened the civil service to Indians, but some educated Indians felt this reform was insufficient. Company officials had the right to appeal in many court cases against Indians. The Company imposed heavy taxes on Indians and confiscated their property if they failed to pay. Traditional Indian society viewed the Company's modernization efforts with suspicion. People considered the railway, which first started operating from Bombay, a dangerous invention that would bring disaster.

However, many historians believe these reforms were exaggerated, as the Company lacked the resources to implement them effectively, and their impact was negligible outside the area around Calcutta.

India's first prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru Biography | Jawaharlal Nehru's life

Jawaharlal Nehru (14 November 1889 – 27 May 1964) was India's first Prime Minister and a prominent figure in Indian politics both before and after independence. Under the guidance of Mahatma Gandhi, he emerged as a leading figure in the Indian independence movement and led India from its independence in 1947 until his death in 1964. As a Kashmiri Pandit, he was also known as Pandit Nehru, while Indian children affectionately called him Chacha Nehru (Uncle Nehru).

Nehru was chosen by the Congress Party to be the Prime Minister of independent India, although his leadership was effectively decided in 1941 when Gandhi designated him as his political heir and successor. As Prime Minister, he aimed to realize his vision for India. After the Indian Constitution came into effect in 1950, he launched an ambitious program of economic, social, and political reforms. Above all, by promoting a pluralistic, multi-party democracy, he transformed India from a colony into a republic. In foreign policy, he established India as a regional power in South Asia and played a leading role in the Non-Aligned Movement.

Under Nehru's leadership, the Congress Party emerged as a dominant force, winning elections consecutively in 1951, 1957, and 1962, and maintaining its grip on power at both national and state levels. Even in his later years, amidst political crises and following the 1962 Sino-Indian War, he 

remained popular with the Indian public.

Life

Jawaharlal Nehru was born in Allahabad. His father, Motilal Nehru (1861–1931), was a wealthy barrister and a Kashmiri Pandit. Motilal Nehru belonged to the Saraswat Kaul Brahmin community and was elected president of the Indian National Congress twice during the freedom struggle. His mother, Swarup Rani Thussu (1868–1938), came from a prominent Kashmiri Brahmin family in Lahore. She was Motilal's second wife; his first wife had died giving birth to a child. Jawaharlal was the eldest of three children; the other two were daughters. His elder sister, Vijaya Lakshmi, later became the first woman president of the United Nations General Assembly. His younger sister, Krishna Hutheesing, became a renowned writer and wrote several books about her family.

Jawaharlal Nehru received his education at some of the finest schools and universities in the world. He attended Harrow School and then Trinity College, Cambridge (London). He later obtained a law degree from Cambridge University. He spent seven years in England, during which time he developed a keen interest in Fabian socialism and Irish nationalism.

Jawaharlal Nehru returned to India in 1912 and began practicing law. In 1916, he married Kamala Nehru. In 1917, Jawaharlal Nehru joined the Home Rule League. His real political awakening came two years later, in 1919, when he came into contact with Mahatma Gandhi. At that time, Gandhi had launched a movement against the Rowlatt Act. Nehru was greatly influenced by Gandhi's active but peaceful non-cooperation movement.

Nehru also adapted his family to Gandhi's teachings. Jawaharlal and Motilal Nehru gave up Western clothes and expensive items. They began wearing khadi kurta and Gandhi caps. Jawaharlal Nehru actively participated in the Non-Cooperation Movement of 1920–1922 and was arrested for the first time during this period. He was released after a few months. Jawaharlal Nehru was elected as the president of the Allahabad Municipal Corporation in 1924 and served as the city's chief executive for two years. In 1926, he resigned citing a lack of cooperation from the British authorities.

From 1926 to 1928, Jawaharlal Nehru served as the General Secretary of the All India Congress Committee. In 1928-1929, the annual session of the Congress was held under the chairmanship of Motilal Nehru. At this session, Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose supported the demand for complete political independence, while Motilal Nehru and other leaders supported the demand for Dominion Status within the British Empire. To resolve this issue, Gandhi proposed a compromise: giving Britain two years to grant Dominion Status to India, and if they failed to do so, the Congress would launch a national movement for complete political independence. Nehru and Bose insisted that this period be reduced to one year. The British government did not respond.

In December 1929, the annual session of the Congress was held in Lahore, where Jawaharlal Nehru was elected as the President of the Congress Party. This session also passed a resolution demanding 'Purna Swaraj' (complete independence). On January 26, 1930, Jawaharlal Nehru hoisted the flag of independent India in Lahore. Gandhi also launched the Civil Disobedience Movement in 1930. This movement was quite successful and forced the British government to acknowledge the need for major political reforms.

When the British government implemented the Government of India Act of 1935, the Congress Party decided to contest the elections. Nehru himself did not contest the elections, but he campaigned vigorously for the party throughout the country. The Congress formed governments in almost every province and won a majority of seats in the Central Assembly.

Nehru was elected President of the Congress in 1936 and 1937. He was arrested during the Quit India Movement in 1942 and released in 1945. He played a crucial role in the negotiations with the British government for the independence of India and Pakistan in 1947.

Constitution of India | Constituent Assembly and Parts of the Indian Constitution

November 26 is celebrated as Constitution Day in India, while January 26 is celebrated as Republic Day. The Government of India Act of 1935 is considered the main source of inspiration for the Indian Constitution. The Indian Constitution is one of the longest written constitutions of any democratic country in the world.

Constituent Assembly

The Indian Constituent Assembly was elected in July 1946. Its first meeting was held in December 1946. Shortly after, the country was divided into two parts – India and Pakistan. The Constituent Assembly also split into two – the Indian Constituent Assembly and the Pakistani Constituent Assembly.

The assembly that drafted the Indian Constitution had 299 members, and Dr. Rajendra Prasad was its president. The Constituent Assembly completed its work on November 26, 1949, and the Constitution came into effect on January 26, 1950. In commemoration of this day, India celebrates Republic Day every year on January 26.  The entire process of drafting the Indian Constitution took two years, eleven months, and 18 days.

Brief Introduction

The Indian Constitution currently has 470 articles, 12 schedules, and 25 parts. However, when it was being drafted, the original constitution had 395 articles, 22 parts, and only 8 schedules. The constitution provides for a parliamentary system of government with a federal structure, with some exceptions. The President is the constitutional head of the executive at the Union level. According to Article 79 of the Indian Constitution, the Parliament of India consists of the President and two Houses – the Rajya Sabha and the Lok Sabha. The President, as the head of state, acts on the advice of the Council of Ministers headed by the Prime Minister. Thus, the real executive power is vested in the Council of Ministers headed by the Prime Minister, who is currently Narendra Modi. The Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha. Every state has a Legislative Assembly. Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana also have a Legislative Council. Every state has a Governor, in whom the executive power of the state is vested. The Council of Ministers, headed by the Chief Minister, advises the Governor in the exercise of his executive functions. The State Council of Ministers is responsible to the State Legislative Assembly. The Seventh Schedule of the Constitution distributes legislative powers between the Parliament and the State Legislatures. It also specifies the powers of different levels of government to levy taxes and duties. Residual powers are vested in the Parliament.

Parts of the Indian Constitution

The Indian Constitution is divided into 22 parts and contains 395 articles and 12 schedules.

History

After World War II, in July 1945, Britain announced its new policy regarding India and sent a three-member Cabinet Mission to India to formulate a constitution. After India gained independence on August 15, 1947, the Constituent Assembly was formed and commenced its work on December 9, 1947. The members of the Constituent Assembly were elected by the members of the legislative assemblies of the Indian states. Jawaharlal Nehru, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, Dr. Rajendra Prasad, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, and Maulana Abul Kalam Azad were among the prominent members of this assembly. The Constituent Assembly deliberated for a total of 114 days over a period of 2 years, 11 months, and 18 days. It held a total of 12 sessions, and on the final day, 284 members signed the Constitution. The drafting of the Constitution involved 166 days of meetings. The press and the public were allowed to attend these meetings. All 389 members of the Constituent Assembly played a significant role in drafting the Indian Constitution. The Indian Constitution was heavily influenced by the Government of India Act of 1935; approximately 250 articles were taken from that Act.

Structure of the Indian Constitution

The Indian Constitution currently comprises the following:

A preamble,

25 parts and 470 articles,

12 schedules,

5 appendices,

105 amendments.

(So far, 127 Constitution Amendment Bills have been introduced in Parliament, of which 105 have been passed and have become Constitution Amendment Acts. The 124th Constitution Amendment Bill, which provides for reservation for Economically Weaker Sections within the general category in educational institutions, was passed with special majority under Article 368 on January 9, 2019.  On August 8, 2016, Parliament passed the 101st Constitution Amendment Act, which introduced the Goods and Services Tax (GST).)

East India Company in India | History of East India Company

The East India Company was founded in 1600 and dissolved in 1874. It was established to trade in the Indian Ocean region, initially with the East Indies (the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia) and later with East Asia. The company eventually established control over large parts of the Indian subcontinent and Hong Kong. At its peak, the company was, in many ways, the largest corporation in the world and had its own armed forces, including three Presidency armies with approximately 260,000 soldiers.

Initially named "The Governor and Company of Merchants of London Trading into the East Indies," the company was responsible for approximately half of the world's trade in the mid-1700s and early 1800s, particularly in goods such as cotton, silk, indigo, sugar, salt, spices, ginger, tea, precious stones, and later, opium. The company also initiated British rule in the Indian subcontinent.

Ultimately, the company ruled over large parts of the Indian subcontinent, wielding military power and assuming administrative responsibilities. The company's territory in the region gradually expanded after the Battle of Plassey in 1757, and by 1858, most of what is now India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh was either directly under the company's control or a princely state closely allied to it by treaty. Following the Indian Rebellion of 1857, under the Government of India Act of 1858, the British government assumed direct control over what is now Bangladesh, Pakistan, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and India, thus establishing the British Indian Empire.

Later, despite increasing government intervention, the company faced financial difficulties. Under the provisions of the East India Stock Dividend Redemption Act passed a year earlier, the company was dissolved in 1874, as by then the Government of India Act had rendered it an unnecessary, powerless, and outdated institution. The British government took over the administrative responsibilities of the company, and its military units were incorporated into the British army.

History

Beginnings

In 1577, Francis Drake set sail from England on an expedition to plunder Spanish settlements in South America in search of gold and silver. Sailing on the ship named the Golden Hind, he completed this task and then crossed the Pacific Ocean in 1579, a route then known only to the Spanish and Portuguese. Drake eventually reached the East Indies, arriving near the Moluccas, known as the Spice Islands, and met with Sultan Babullah. In exchange for linen, gold, and silver, the English obtained various types of valuable spices, including cloves and nutmeg. Drake returned to England in 1580 and became a national hero; his voyage brought considerable wealth to the English treasury and yielded investors a return of approximately 5,000 percent.

Immediately following the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588, the seizure of Spanish and Portuguese ships and their cargo gave English adventurers the opportunity to travel the world in search of riches. London merchants requested permission from Elizabeth I to sail into the Indian Ocean. Their aim was to break the Spanish and Portuguese monopoly on the Far Eastern trade. Elizabeth granted permission, and in 1591, James Lancaster and two other ships, financed by the Levant Company, sailed on the Bonaventure from the Cape of Good Hope to the Arabian Sea, thus becoming the first English expedition to reach India.

The greatest prize for promoting English trade was the capture of the large Portuguese carrack ship, Madre de Deus, by Walter Raleigh and the Earl of Cumberland at the Battle of Flores on August 13, 1592. When it arrived in Dartmouth, it was the largest ship ever seen in England, and it carried chests filled with precious stones, pearls, gold, silver coins, ambergris, textiles, carpets, black pepper, cloves, cinnamon, nutmeg, benzoin (a highly fragrant balsamic resin used in perfumes and medicines), red dye, cochineal, and ivory. The ship's logbook was also invaluable, containing important information about trade routes to China, India, and Japan. In 1596, three more English ships set sail for the East, but all were lost at sea. However, a year later, Ralph Fitch arrived; he was an adventurous trader who, along with his companions, had undertaken an amazing nine-year journey through Mesopotamia, the Persian Gulf, the Indian Ocean, India, and Southeast Asia. Fitch was consulted on matters relating to India and provided Lancaster with even more valuable information.

Indian Home Rule movement | Objectives of the Home Rule Movement

The Home Rule Movement was the All India Home Rule League, a political organization founded by Bal Gangadhar Tilak in 1916. Its objective was to promote the national demand for self-rule in India under the banner of "Home Rule." Its goal was to achieve dominion status for India within the British Empire. At that time, Australia, Canada, South Africa, New Zealand, and Newfoundland were already dominions within the British Empire.

When World War I began, the liberal faction of the Indian National Congress decided to support Britain. They believed that if India supported Britain, Britain would grant India independence after the war. However, the Indian National Congress soon realized that Britain would never do so, and Indian leaders became dissatisfied and began exploring other avenues. This discontent led to the emergence of the Home Rule Movement. Between 1915 and 1916, two Home Rule Leagues were established: the Pune Home Rule League founded by Bal Gangadhar Tilak and the Madras Home Rule League founded by Annie Besant. The Home Rule League functioned as a subsidiary organization of the Indian National Congress. The movement aimed to achieve self-rule, but it did not advocate the use of violence.

During the Home Rule Movement, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Annie Besant designed a flag in 1917. This flag consisted of five red and four green horizontal stripes, and also featured seven stars. However, this flag did not gain widespread popularity.

Introduction

Mrs. Annie Besant was from Ireland. She was a leader of the Theosophical Society in India. She was deeply influenced by Indian civilization and culture. Therefore, she left Ireland and settled in India, eventually coming to consider India her home. At that time in Ireland, the Irish Home Rule League had been established under the leadership of Irish leader Redmond. The objective of this league was to achieve self-government for Ireland through constitutional and peaceful means. In 1913, when Annie Besant went to England, the Irish Home Rule League asked her to launch a Home Rule movement for independence in India. Mrs. Annie Besant wanted India to have the same level of self-government as other British colonies, meaning she wanted India to achieve dominion status. With this objective in mind, upon returning to India, she joined the Congress Party and, by uniting both moderate and radical leaders, launched the Home Rule movement.

Objectives of the Home Rule Movement

The Home Rule Movement was a constitutional movement. The main objectives of this movement were as follows:

(1) Its main objective was to achieve self-government in India. Annie Besant wanted India to have the same degree of self-government as other colonies in the British Empire. Explaining the objective of the Home Rule Movement, Annie Besant wrote in the first issue of her weekly journal 'Commonweal': “By political reform we mean the establishment of self-government from village panchayats to district boards and municipalities, provincial assemblies and a national parliament. This national parliament would have the same powers as the legislatures of self-governing colonies. Whatever name it may be given, and when representatives of self-governing states are admitted to the British Parliament, India should also have representatives in that Parliament.”

(2) The objective of this movement was neither to drive the British out of India nor to hamper their war efforts. On the contrary, they argued that a self-governing India would be more helpful to the British during the war. Indians were supporting the British in the war because they hoped that the British would grant them self-government after the war. Annie Besant believed that if the British government granted self-government during the war, Indians would support the British war efforts with greater enthusiasm and more resources. Annie Besant believed that a subjugated India could not be as helpful to the British Empire as a free India. Thus, the objective of this movement was indirectly to support Britain in the war.

(3) Another objective of the Home Rule Movement was to prevent Indian politics from taking a radical turn. Annie Besant carefully studied the political trends in India and concluded that if a peaceful and constitutional movement was not started, revolutionary and terrorist elements would dominate Indian politics. To achieve this objective, she considered starting a peaceful and constitutional movement as the best way. According to Dr. Zakaria, “Her plan was to keep the radical nationalists separate from the revolutionaries. She wanted to pacify the Indians by giving them self-government within the British Empire.” To achieve this objective, she launched the Home Rule Movement with the aim of reducing the influence of revolutionaries in Indian politics.

(4) Indian politics had become stagnant during the war, and the national movement had stalled due to a lack of active programs and effective leadership. Therefore, it was essential to awaken the Indian people from their lethargy. To achieve this objective, Annie Besant launched the Home Rule Movement. Annie Besant stated, "I am an 'agitator' for India; my work is to awaken the sleeping Indians, so that they may rise and work for their country." The Home Rule Movement differed from the earlier liberal movement. It was not merely a demand for self-rule for India, but rather a demand for a fundamental right—that self-rule was the birthright of the Indians. Tilak had said, "Freedom is my birthright, and I shall have it." Annie Besant asserted that Home Rule was India's right, and it was absurd to claim that it should be granted as a reward for loyalty. As a nation, India was demanding its rightful place within the British Empire. India had made this demand before the war, would make it during the war, and would continue to make it after the war. But this right was being demanded not as a reward, but as a birthright; there should be no misunderstanding about this.

Background, Commencement, and Progress of the Movement

Bal Gangadhar Tilak was released from prison on June 16, 1914, after completing his six-year sentence. He had spent most of his imprisonment in Mandalay (Burma). Upon returning to India, he found that the country had undergone significant changes. Arvind Ghosh, the revolutionary leader of the Swadeshi movement, had renounced worldly life and was residing in Pondicherry. Lala Lajpat Rai was in America. The Indian National Congress was still reeling from the shock of the Surat split, the repressive actions of the British against revolutionaries, and the disillusionment of the moderate nationalists following the constitutional reforms of 1909.

Tilak believed that the first step should be to bring the extremists back into the Congress. He was convinced that the Indian National Congress had become synonymous with the Indian national movement, and that no national movement could succeed without its support. To win over the moderates, gain their trust, and prevent future repressive actions by the British government, he stated, "I openly declare that we want the same kind of administrative reforms in India as the nationalists in Ireland are demanding. We have no intention of ending British rule. I have no hesitation in saying that the violent incidents that occurred in various parts of India are not only against my ideology, but they have also slowed down our political progress." He reiterated his loyalty to the British government and urged the Indian people to support the British government during this crisis.

Now, all the leaders of the moderate faction felt that what they had done in Surat in 1907 was wrong. They were also dissatisfied with the Congress's inactivity. Tilak's appeal influenced them. Furthermore, Annie Besant was constantly pressuring them to revive the nationalist political movement in the country. Annie Besant had recently joined the Congress. In 1914, she was 66 years old. Her political career began in England, where she was involved in promoting free thought, socialism, Fabianism, and Theosophy. In 1893, she came to India with the aim of working for the Theosophical Society. She established her headquarters in Adyar, a suburb of Madras, and began propagating Theosophy in 1907.  Soon, she gained considerable support, particularly from educated people in communities that had not yet experienced a cultural renaissance. In 1914, Annie Besant decided to broaden the scope of her activities and planned to launch a movement for self-rule in India, modeled after the Irish Home Rule League. She felt that this required the support of the Congress and the cooperation of the extremist faction. To gain the support of the extremists, she felt it was necessary to bring them into the Congress. Annie Besant tried to persuade the moderate leaders of the Congress to allow Tilak and his extremist associates to join the organization. However, the 1914 Congress session thwarted her efforts. Ferozshah Mehta and his supporters in Bombay, along with the moderate leaders from Bengal, succeeded in excluding the extremists. Thereafter, Tilak and Annie Besant decided to pursue their political movement independently, while simultaneously exerting pressure on the Congress to readmit the extremists.

Bhimrao Ambedkar Biography | Early Life and Education

Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar was an Indian social reformer. He was the chairman of the Drafting Committee of the Constituent Assembly of India, which drafted the Indian Constitution based on a draft prepared by Sir B. N. Rau. Later, he renounced Hinduism, embraced Buddhism, and inspired the Dalit Buddhist movement.

After graduating from Elphinstone College, University of Bombay, Ambedkar studied economics at Columbia University and the London School of Economics, and earned doctoral degrees from both institutions in 1923 and 1927 respectively. He was one of the few Indian students to earn a doctorate from these institutions in the 1920s. In his early career, he was an economist, professor, and lawyer. His later life was dedicated to political activities; he participated in partition talks, published newspapers, advocated for the political rights and social emancipation of Dalits, and contributed to the establishment of the Indian state. In 1956, he converted to Buddhism.

Early Life and Education

Ambedkar was born on April 14, 1891, in the town and military cantonment of Mhow (now officially Dr. Ambedkar Nagar, Madhya Pradesh). He was the 14th and youngest child of Ramji Sakpal, an army officer of the rank of Subedar, and Bhimabai Sakpal, daughter of Laxman Murbadkar. His family was a Marathi family from Ambawe (Mandalgad taluka) in the Ratnagiri district of present-day Maharashtra. Ambedkar's ancestors served in the British East India Company's army for several generations, and his father was employed in the British Indian Army at the Mhow cantonment.

Ambedkar was born into the Mahar (Dalit) caste, who were considered untouchable and faced socio-economic discrimination. Although he attended school, Ambedkar and other untouchable children were segregated and received little attention or help from teachers. They were not allowed to sit in class. When they needed water, a person of a higher caste would pour water into their hands from a height, as they were not allowed to touch the water or the vessel. This task was usually performed by the school peon for Ambedkar, and if the peon was absent, he had to go without water; he later described this situation in his writings as "no peon, no water." He had to sit on a sack, which he would then have to carry home.

Ramji Sakpal retired in 1894, and two years later the family moved to Satara. Shortly after this move, Ambedkar's mother passed away. His aunt took care of the children, and they lived in difficult circumstances. Of Ambedkar's three sons—Balram, Anandrao, and Bhimrao—and two daughters—Manjula and Tulsi—only Ambedkar passed his exams and was able to attend high school. His original surname was Sakpal, but his father registered him at school under the name Ambawadekar, which meant that he was from the village of Ambav in the Ratnagiri district. His Marathi Brahmin teacher, Krishnaji Keshav Ambedkar, later changed his surname in the school records from "Ambawadekar" to "Ambedkar."

Education

In 1897, Ambedkar's family moved to Bombay. There, Ambedkar became the only Dalit student to be admitted to Elphinstone High School. In 1906, when he was about 15 years old, he was married to nine-year-old Ramabai, an arranged marriage according to the customs of the time.

In 1907, he passed his matriculation examination, and the following year he enrolled at Elphinstone College, affiliated with the University of Bombay. He claimed to be the first member of his Mahar community to do so. When he passed the fourth-grade English examination, his community celebrated, considering it a "great achievement," though he himself remarked that "it was nothing special compared to the educational level of other communities." To celebrate his success, the community organized a public function, and on that occasion, he was presented with a biography of Buddha, written by Dada Keluskar, a family friend and author.

By 1912, he had earned a degree in Economics and Political Science from the University of Bombay and was preparing to take a job with the Baroda state government. His wife had recently joined him and they had begun their married life, when he had to return to Bombay suddenly to see his ailing father, who died on February 2, 1913.

In 1913, at the age of 22, Ambedkar was awarded a Baroda State Scholarship of £11.50 (sterling) per month for three years under a scheme initiated by Sayajirao Gaekwad III (the Gaekwad of Baroda). The scheme aimed to provide opportunities for postgraduate education at Columbia University in New York City. Immediately upon arriving there, he began living with a Parsi named Naval Bhatena in Livingston Hall, who later became his lifelong friend. He earned his Master's degree in June 1915, majoring in Economics and Sociology, History, Philosophy, and Anthropology. He submitted a thesis titled "Ancient Indian Trade." Ambedkar was influenced by John Dewey and his work on democracy. In 1916, he completed his second master's thesis, "The National Dividend of India—A Historical and Analytical Study," and received his second MA degree. On May 9, he presented a paper titled "Castes in India: Their Mechanism, Genesis and Development" at a seminar conducted by anthropologist Alexander Goldenweiser. Ambedkar earned his PhD in Economics from Columbia University in 1927.

In October 1916, he enrolled in the Bar course at Gray's Inn and also enrolled at the London School of Economics, where he began working on his doctoral thesis. In June 1917, he returned to India as his scholarship from Baroda had ended. The ship carrying his books was destroyed by a German submarine. He was permitted to return to London within four years to submit his thesis. He soon returned and completed his doctoral degree in 1921. His thesis was on "The Rupee Problem: Its Origin and Its Solution." In 1923, he completed his D.Sc. degree in Economics.