Constitution of India | Constituent Assembly and Preamble of the Indian Constitution.

The Constitution of India is the supreme law of India which was passed by the Constituent Assembly on 26 November 1949 and came into effect from 26 January 1950. This day (26 November) has been declared as the Constitution Day of India. While 26 January is celebrated as Republic Day in India. The basic foundation of the Constitution of India is considered to be the Government of India Act 1935. The Constitution of India is the longest written constitution of any republican country in the world.

constituent Assembly

Elections were held for the Indian Constituent Assembly in July 1946. The first meeting of the Constituent Assembly was held in December 1946. Soon after this, the country was divided into two parts - India and Pakistan . The Constituent Assembly was also divided into two parts - the Constituent Assembly of India and the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan.

There were 299 members in the assembly that wrote the Indian Constitution and Dr. Rajendra Prasad was its president. The Constituent Assembly completed its work on 26 November 1949 and the Constitution came into force on 26 January 1950. In memory of this day, India celebrates 26 January as Republic Day every year. It took 2 years, 17 months and 78 days to completely prepare the Indian Constitution.

Brief Introduction

The Indian Constitution at present has only 470 articles and 12 schedules and is divided into 25 parts. At the time of its creation, the original Constitution had 395 articles divided into 22 parts and only 8 schedules. The Constitution provides for a parliamentary form of government whose structure is federal except for some exceptions . The constitutional head of the central executive is the President . According to Article 79 of the Constitution of India, the Council of the Union Parliament consists of the President and two Houses headed by the Prime Minister of the States . The President will discharge his functions in accordance with the advice of this Council of Ministers. Thus the real executive power is vested in the Council of Ministers headed by the Prime Minister who is currently Narendra Modi. The Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the House of the People (Lok Sabha). Every state has a Legislative Assembly . Uttar Pradesh , Bihar , Maharashtra , Karnataka , Andhra Pradesh and Telangana have an upper house called the Legislative Council . The Governor is the head of the state. Each state shall have a Governor and the executive power of the state shall be vested in him. The Council of Ministers, headed by the Chief Minister , advises the Governor in the discharge of his executive functions. The Council of Ministers of the State is answerable to the Legislative Assembly of the State.

The distribution of legislative powers between the Parliament and the state legislatures has been done in the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution. And the rights of the governments to levy duties and taxes are mentioned in this schedule. There are three lists under this. Union List, State List and Concurrent List. Residual powers are vested in the Parliament. Centrally administered territories are called Union Territories.

Parts of the Indian Constitution

The Indian Constitution is divided into 22 parts and it has 395 articles and 12 schedules.

History

After the end of the Second World War , in July 1945, Britain announced its new policy regarding India and sent a Cabinet Mission to India for the formation of the Constituent Assembly of India which had 3 ministers. After India became independent on 15 August 1947, the Constituent Assembly was announced and it started its work from 9 December 1947. The members of the Constituent Assembly were elected by the elected members of the assemblies of the states of India. Jawaharlal Nehru , Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar , Dr. Rajendra Prasad , Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel , Maulana Abul Kalam Azad etc. were the prominent members of this assembly. This Constituent Assembly discussed for a total of 114 days in 2 years, 11 months and 18 days. A total of 12 sessions were held in the Constituent Assembly and on the last day 284 members signed it and 166 days of meetings were held to make the Constitution. Press and public had freedom to participate in its meetings. All 389 members of the Constituent Assembly played an important role in the making of the Constitution of India. The Constitution was passed by the Assembly on 26 November 1949 and it was implemented on 26 January 1950. The Government of India Act 1935 has the greatest influence in this Constitution. About 250 articles in it have been taken from this Act.

Structure of the Indian Constitution

The following are the parts of the Indian Constitution at present:

• a preamble ,

• 25 parts containing 470 articles

• 12 schedules,

• 5 appendixes

• 105 amendments.

(So far 127 Constitution Amendment Bills have been introduced in the Parliament, out of which 105 Constitution Amendment Bills have been passed and have taken the form of Constitution Amendment Act. The 124th Constitution Amendment Bill was passed in the Parliament on 9 January 2019 by a special majority on Article368 (Constitutional Amendment) , under which the economically weaker general category was given admission in educational institutions. On 8 August 201 6, the Parliament passed the Goods and Services Tax (GST) and made the 101 st Constitution Amendment.)

Schedules

There were originally eight schedules in the original Constitution of India but at present there are twelve schedules in the Indian Constitution . The Ninth Schedule was added to the Constitution by the First Constitutional Amendment 1951, the 10th Schedule by the 52nd Constitutional Amendment 1985, the 1 lth Schedule by the 73rd Constitutional Amendment 1992 and the 12th Schedule by the 74th Constitutional Amendment 1992.

First Schedule - (Articles 1 and 4)- Description of States and Union Territories.

Second Schedule - [Articles 59(3), 65(3), 75(6), 97, 125, 148(3), 158(3), 164(5), 186 and 221] - Salaries and allowances of principal officers.

• Part-A: Salaries and allowances of the President and Governors,

• Part-B: Salaries and allowances of the Speaker and Deputy Speaker of Lok Sabha and Legislative Assembly, Chairman and Deputy Chairman of Rajya Sabha and Legislative Council,

• Part-C: Salaries and allowances of the judges of the Supreme Court,

• Part-D : Salary and Allowances of the Comptroller and Auditor General of India.

Third Schedule- [Articles 75(4), 99, 124(6), 148(2), 164(3), 188 and 219] - Contains the forms of oath and affirmation to be made by members of legislature, ministers, President, Vice-President, judges, etc.

Fourth Schedule - [Articles 4(1), 80(2)] - Allocation of seats in the Rajya Sabha from the States and Union Territories.

Fifth Schedule - [Article 244(1)] - Provisions relating to the administration and control of the Scheduled Areas and the Scheduled Tribes.

Sixth Schedule - [Articles 244(2), 275(1)] - Provisions for the administration of tribal areas in the States of Assam , Meghalaya , Tripura and Mizoram.

Seventh Schedule - [Article 246] - Deals with distribution of subjects- List-I Union List, List-2 State List, List-3 Concurrent List.

Eighth Schedule - [Articles 344(1), 351] - Languages - Mention of 22 languages.

Ninth Schedule - [Article 31 B] - Validation of certain Land Reforms Acts. Added by the First Constitutional Amendment (1951).

Tenth Schedule - [Articles 102(2), 191 (2)] - Provisions regarding defection and grounds for change inserted by 52nd Constitutional Amendment (1985).

Eleventh Schedule - [Article 243C] - This schedule relating to Panchayati Raj/Zilla Panchayat was added to the Constitution by the 73rd Constitutional Amendment (1992).

Twelfth Schedule - It describes municipalities; this schedule was added to the Constitution by the 74th Constitutional Amendment (1993).

baseline characteristics

The Constitution Drafting Committee and the Supreme Court have considered the Indian Constitution to be a federal constitution , but there is disagreement among scholars. American scholars call it a I pseudo-federal constitution although Eastern constitutionalists say that the American Constitution cannot be the only federal constitution. The constitution being federal depends on the federal features contained in it, but the Honorable Supreme Court has considered it to be completely federal.

According to the Preamble of the Indian Constitution, India is a sovereign , socialist , secular , democratic republic.

Sovereignty

The word sovereignty means to be supreme or independent. India is a sovereign nation completely free from the control of any foreign or internal power . It is governed by a free government directly elected by the people and this government rules the people by making laws.

Socialist

The word socialist was added to the preamble of the Constitution by the 42nd Amendment Act in 1976. It ensures social and economic equality for all its citizens. It gives equal status and opportunity to all without any discrimination on the basis of caste , colour , race , sex, religion or language . The government will prevent the accumulation of wealth in the hands of only a few people and will try to provide a good standard of living to all citizens.

India has adopted a mixed economic model. The government has made many laws like the Abolition of Untouchability, Zamindari Act, Equal Pay Act and Child Labor Prohibition Act etc. to achieve the goal of socialism.

Secular

The word secular was added to the preamble by the 42nd Amendment Act of the Constitution in 1976. It ensures equality of all religions and religious tolerance. India has no official religion. It neither promotes any religion nor discriminates against any. It respects all religions and treats them equally. Every person has the right to worship, follow and propagate any religion of his choice. All citizens, whatever their religious beliefs, are equal in the eyes of the law. No religious instruction is imposed in government or government-aided schools.

Democratic

India is a free country, freedom to vote from any place, special seats have been reserved for scheduled social groups and scheduled tribes in the Parliament. A certain proportion of seats are reserved for women candidates in local body elections. A bill is pending to reserve one-third seats for women in all elections. However, it is not certain how it will be implemented. The Election Commission of India is an independent body and it is always ready to conduct free and fair elections.

Unlike monarchies, where the head of state is appointed on a hereditary basis for life or until abdication, the head of a republic is elected by the people directly or indirectly for a fixed term. The President of India is elected by an electoral college for a term of five years.

Division of power

This is the most important feature of the Indian Constitution, the powers of the state are divided between the central and state governments. Both the powers are not subordinate to each other, they arise and are controlled by the Constitution.

The political meaning of separation of powers is that the legislature, executive and judiciary, with their respective powers, shall be separate and independent from each other.

supremacy of the constitution

The provisions of the Constitution are equally binding on the Union and State governments. The articles dividing power between the Centre and the States are given below:

1. Articles 54,55,73,162,241.

2. Part-5 Legal relations between Supreme Court , High Court , State and Centre.

3. Any list under Article 7.

4. Representation of states in Parliament.

5. Power to amend the Constitution Article 368 Parliament cannot amend these articles alone it needs the consent of the states as well.

Other articles not related to division of powers:

1. The written constitution will necessarily be in written form because a clear description of the division of powers is necessary in it. Hence, the union will definitely have a written constitution.

2. Rigidity of the Constitution means that both the State and the Centre will participate in amending the Constitution.

3. Jurisdiction of Courts - This means that the Centre and State will rely on an impartial and independent authority to interpret the law.

Established by law:

1. The courts will supervise the division of powers between the Union and the States.

2. The courts will be the final interpreters of the Constitution. In India this power lies with the Supreme Court.

These five conditions are essential to make a constitution federal. In India, all these five features are present in the constitution, hence it is federal. But the Indian constitution also has some differentiating features:

Preamble to the Constitution

To express the objectives of the Constitution, a preamble is usually presented before it. The preamble of the Indian Constitution is influenced by the American Constitution and is considered the best in the world. The essence, expectations, objectives, goals and philosophy of the Indian Constitution are revealed in the name of the preamble. The preamble declares that the Constitution derives its power directly from the people, that is why it begins with the sentence We the people of India' . In the case of Kehar Singh vs Union of India, it was said that the Constituent Assembly does not directly represent the Indian people, hence the Constitution cannot get special favor of the law, but the court rejected it and considered the Constitution as supreme, on which no question can be raised.

Preamble of the Constitution:

We, the people of India, to constitute India into a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic and to all its citizens .

To secure social, economic and political justice, freedom of thought, expression, belief, religion and worship, equality of dignity and opportunity, and To promote among them all the fraternity assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the nation With firm resolve, in this our Constituent Assembly on this 26th November 7949 (Mitti Margshirsha Shukla Saptami, Samvat two thousand six Vikrami) do hereby We adopt, enact and give ourselves to this Constitution.

Preamble of the Constitution The Preamble presented by Jawaharlal Nehru in the Constituent Assembly on 13 December 1946 is also called the Preamble.

• K.M. Munshi has named the preamble as 'Political Horoscope'

• The words socialism, secularism and integrity were added to the Preamble of the Indian Constitution by the 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1976.

Constitution Part 3 and 4: Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles of State Policy

Parts 3 and 4 together are called the 'soul and consciousness of the Constitution' because for any independent nation, fundamental rights and directive principles play an important role in the building of the nation. Directive Principles are the latest elements of democratic constitutional development. They were first implemented in the Constitution of Ireland . These are the elements that have evolved along with the development of the Constitution. The function of these elements is to establish a welfare state. In this part of the Indian Constitution, the form of the Directive Principles has been determined, the difference between Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles has been explained and the importance of Directive Principles has been explained.

East India Company in India | History, Formation, Early voyages to the East Indies, Foothold in India.

The East India Company (EIC) was an English, and later British, joint-stock company that was founded in 1600 and dissolved in 1874. It was formed to trade in the Indian Ocean region , initially with the East Indies (the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia), and later with East Asia . The company gained control of large parts of the Indian subcontinent and Hong Kong . At its peak, the company was the largest corporation in the world by various measures and had its own armed forces in the form of the company's three presidency armies, totaling about 260,000 soldiers, twice the size of the British Army at certain times.

Originally chartered as the "Governor and Company of Merchants of London Trading into the East-Indies," the company rose to account for half of the world's trade during the mid-1700s and early 1800s, particularly in basic commodities including cotton , silk indigo dye , sugar , salt , spices , saltpetre , tea , gemstones , and later opium . The company also initiated the beginnings of the British Raj in the Indian subcontinent.

The company eventually came to rule large areas of the Indian subcontinent, exercising military power and assuming administrative functions. Company-ruled areas in the region gradually expanded after the Battle of Plassey in 1757 and by 1858 most of modern India, Pakistan and Bangladesh was either ruled by the company or princely states closely tied to it by treaty. Following the Sepoy Rebellion of 1857 , the Government of India Act 1858 led to the British Crown assuming direct control of present-day Bangladesh, Pakistan and India in the form of the new British Indian Empire.

The company subsequently experienced recurring problems with its finances, despite frequent government intervention. The company was dissolved in 1874 under the terms of the East India Stock Dividend Redemption Act enacted one year earlier, as the Government of India Act had by then rendered it vestigial, powerless, and obsolete. The official government machinery of the British Empire had assumed its governmental functions and absorbed its armies.

History

Origins

In 1577, Francis Drake set out on an expedition from England to plunder Spanish settlements in South America in search of gold and silver. Sailing in the Golden Hind he achieved this, and then sailed across the Pacific Ocean in 1579, known then only to the Spanish and Portuguese. Drake eventually sailed into the East Indies and came across the Moluccas , also known as the Spice Islands, and met Sultan Babullah . In exchange for linen, gold, and silver, the English obtained a large haul of exotic spices, including cloves and nutmeg. Drake returned to England in 1580 and became a hero; his circumnavigation raised an enormous amount of money for England's coffers, and investors received a return of some 5,000 percent. Thus started an important element in the eastern design during the late sixteenth century.

Soon after the Spanish Armada Is defeat in 1588, the captured Spanish and Portuguese ships and cargoes enabled English voyagers to travel the globe in search of riches. London merchants presented a petition to Elizabeth I for permission to sail to the Indian Ocean. The aim was to deliver a decisive blow to the Spanish and Portuguese monopoly of far-eastern trade. Elizabeth granted her permission and in 1591, James Lancaster in the Bonaventure with two other ships, financed by the Levant Company, sailed from England around the Cape of Good Hope to the Arabian Sea ,becoming the first English expedition to reach India that way. Having sailed around Cape Comorin to the Malay Peninsula , they preyed on Spanish and Portuguese ships there before returning to England in 1594.

The biggest prize that galvanized English trade was the seizure of a large Portuguese carrack , the Madre de Deus , by Walter Raleigh and the Earl of Cumberland at the Battle of Flores on 13 August 1592. When she was brought in to Dartmouth she was the largest vessel ever seen in England and she carried chests of jewels, pearls, gold, silver coins, ambergris , cloth, tapestries, pepper, cloves, cinnamon, nutmeg, benjamin (a highly aromatic balsamic resin used for perfumes and medicines), red dye, cochineal and ebony. Equally valuable was the ship's rutter (mariner's handbook) containing vital information on the China , India, and Japan trade routes.

In 1596, three more English ships sailed east but all were lost at sea. A year later however saw the arrival of Ralph Fitch , an adventurer merchant who, with his companions, had made a remarkable nine year overland journey to Mesopotamia , the Persian Gulf , the Indian Ocean, India and Southeast Asia. Fitch was consulted on Indian affairs and gave even more valuable information to Lancaster.

Formation

In 1599, a group of prominent merchants and explorers met to discuss a potential East Indies venture under a royal charter. Besides Fitch the group included Stephen Soame , then Lord Mayor of London ; Thomas Smythe , a powerful London politician and administrator; Richard Hakluyt , writer and proponent of English colonization of the Americas ; and several other sea-farers who had served with Drake and Raleigh.

On 22 September, the group stated their intention "to venture in the pretended voyage to the East Indies (the which it may please the Lord to prosper)" and to themselves invest £30,1 33 (over in today's money). Two days later, the "Adventurers" reconvened and resolved to apply to the Queen for support of the project. Although their first attempt had not been completely successful, they sought the Queen's unofficial approval to continue. They bought ships for the venture and increased their investment to £68,373.

They convened again a year later, on 31 December 1600, and this time they succeeded; the Queen responded favorably to a petition by George, Earl of Cumberland and 218 others, including James Lancaster, Sir John Harte , Sir John Spencer (both of whom had been Lord Mayor of London ), the adventurer Edward Michelborne , the nobleman William Cavendish and other aldermen and citizens. She granted her charter to their corporation named Governor and Company of Merchants of London trading into the East Indies For a period of fifteen years, the charter awarded the company a monopoly on English trade with all countries east of the Cape of Good Hope and west of the Straits of Magellan. Any traders there without a license from the company were liable to forfeiture of their ships and cargo (half of which would go to the Crown and half to the company), as well as imprisonment at the "royal pleasure".

The charter named Thomas Smythe as the first governor of the company, and 24 directors (including James Lancaster) or "committees", who made up a Court of Directors. They, in turn, reported to a Court of Proprietors, who appointed them. Ten committees reported to the Court of Directors. By tradition, business was initially transacted at the Nags Head Inn, opposite St Botolph's church in Bishopsgate , before moving to East India House on Leadenhall Street.

Early voyages to the East Indies

Sir James Lancaster commanded the first East India Company voyage in 1601 aboard Red Dragon. The following year, whilst sailing in the Malacca Straits , Lancaster took the rich 1,200 ton Portuguese carrack Sao Thome carrying pepper and spices. The booty enabled the voyagers to set up two " factories " (trading posts)- one at Bantam on Java and another in the Moluccas (Spice Islands) before leaving. On return to England in 1603, they learned of Elizabeth's death, but Lancaster was knighted by the new king, James I , on account of the voyage’s success. By this time, the war with Spain had ended but the company had profitably breached the Spanish-Portuguese duopoly; new horizons opened for the English.

In March 1604, Sir Henry Middleton commanded the company's second voyage .General William Keeling , a captain during the second voyage, led the third voyage aboard Red Dragon from 1607 to 1610 along with Hector under Captain William Hawkins and Consent under Captain David Middleton.

Early in 1608, Alexander Sharpeigh was made captain of the company's Ascension , and general or commander of the fourth voyage. Thereafter two ships, Ascension and Union (captained by Richard Rowles), sailed from Woolwich on 14 March 1608. This expedition was lost.

Initially, the company struggled in the spice trade because of competition from the Dutch East India Company . This rivalry led to military skirmishes, with each company establishing fortified trading posts, fleets, and alliances with local rulers. The Dutch, better financed and supported by their government, gained the upper hand by establishing a stronghold in the spice islands (now Indonesia enforcing a near- monopoly through aggressive policies that eventually drove the EIC to seek trade opportunities in India instead. The English company opened a factory (trading post) in Bantam on Java on its first voyage, and imports of pepper from Java remained an important part of the company's trade for twenty years.

English traders frequently fought their Dutch and Portuguese counterparts in the Indian Ocean. The company achieved a major victory over the Portuguese in the Battle of Swally in 1612, at Suvali in Surat . The company decided to explore the feasibility of a foothold in mainland India, with official sanction from both Britain and the Mughal Empire , and requested that the Crown launch a diplomatic mission.

Foothold in India

Company ships docked at Surat in Gujarat in 1608. The company's first Indian factory was established in 1611 at Masulipatnam on the Andhra Coast of the Bay of Bengal , and its second in 1615 at Surat. The high profits reported by the company after landing in India initially prompted James I to grant subsidiary licenses to other trading companies in England. However, in 1609, he renewed the East India Company's charter for an indefinite period, with the proviso that its privileges would be annulled if trade was unprofitable for three consecutive years.

In 1615, James I instructed Sir Thomas Roe to visit the Mughal Emperor Nur-ud-din Salim Jahangir (1605 - 1627) to arrange for a commercial treaty that would give the company exclusive rights to reside and establish factories in Surat and other areas. In return, the company offered to provide the Emperor with goods and rarities from the European market. This mission was highly successful, and Jahangir sent a letter to James through Sir Thomas Roe:

Upon which assurance of your royal love I have given my general command to all the kingdoms and ports of my dominions to receive all the merchants of the English nation as the subjects of my friend; that in what place soever they choose to live, they may have free liberty without any restraint; and at what port soever they shall arrive, that neither Portugal nor any other shall dare to molest their quiet; and in what city soever they shall have residence, I have commanded all my governors and captains to give them freedom answerable to their own desires; to sell, buy, and to transport into their country at their pleasure. For confirmation of our love and friendship, I desire your Majesty to command your merchants to bring in their ships of all sorts of rarities and rich goods fit for my palace; and that you will be pleased to send me your royal letters by every opportunity, that I may rejoice in your health and prosperous affairs; that our friendship may be interchanged and eternal.

-Nuruddin Salim Jahangir, Letter to James I.

Expansion in present day South Asia

The company, which benefited from the imperial patronage, soon expanded its commercial trading operations. It eclipsed the Portuguese Estado da India , which had established bases in Goa , Chittagong , and Bombay ; Portugal later ceded Bombay to England as part of the dowry of Catherine of Braganza on her marriage to King Charles II . The East India Company also launched a joint attack with the Dutch United East India Company (VOC) on Portuguese and Spanish ships off the coast of China that helped secure EIC ports in China, independently attacking the Portuguese in the Persian Gulf Residencies primarily for political reasons. The company established trading posts in Surat (1619) and Madras (1639). By 1647, the company had 23 factories and settlements in India, and 90 employees. Many of the major factories became some of the most populated and commercially influential cities in Bengal, including the walled forts of Fort William in Bengal, Fort St George in Madras, and Bombay Castle.

The first century of the Company, despite its original profits coming primarily from piracy in the Spice Islands between competing European powers and their companies, saw the East India Company change focus after suffering a major setback in 1623 when their factory in Amboyna in the Moluccas was attacked by the Dutch. This compelled the company to formally abandon their efforts in the Spice Islands, and turn their attention to Bengal where, by this time, they were making steady, if less exciting, profits. After gaining the indifferent patronage of the Mughal Empire , whose cities were Ithe megacities of their timel and whose wealth was unmatched outside of Asia in the 17th century, the Company's first century in the Mughal-ruled areas was spent cultivating their relationship with the Mughal Dynasty, and conducting peaceful trade at great profit. At first it should be said the EIC was drawn into the Mughal system, acting as a kind of vassal to Mughal authority in present-day Bangladesh: it was from this position that the Company would ultimately outplay and outmanoeuvre all competing powers in the region, to eventually use that very system to hold power itself. What started as trading posts on undesirable land were developed into sprawling factory complexes with hundreds of workers sending exotic goods to England and managing protected points to export English finished goods to local merchants. The Company's initial rise in Bengal and successes generally came at the expense of competing European powers through the art of currying favors and well-placed bribes, as the Company was matched at every step with French expansion in the region (whose equivalent company carried substantial royal support). Throughout the entire century the company only resorted to force against the Mughals once, with terrible consequences. The Anglo-Mughal war (1686 - 1690) was a complete defeat, ending when the EIC effectively swore fealty to the Mughals to get their factories back.

The East India Company's fortunes changed for the better in 1707 when Bengal and other regions under Mughal rule fell into anarchy after the death of the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb. A series of large-scale rebellions, and the collapse of the Mughal taxation system led to the effective independence of virtually all of the pre-1707 Mughal fiefs and holdings, with their capital Delhi routinely under the control of Maratha, Afghan, or usurper generals' armies. The EIC was able to take advantage of this chaos, slowly assuming direct control of the province of Bengal , and fighting numerous wars against the French for control of the east coast of the subcontinent. The Company's position in the Mughal court as it fell apart made it possible to sponsor various powerful people on the subcontinent as they individually contended with others, steadily amassing more land and power in India to themselves.

In the 18th Century, the primary source of the Company's profits in Bengal became taxation in conquered and controlled provinces, as the factories became fortresses and administrative hubs for networks of tax collectors that expanded into enormous cities. The Mughal Empire was the richest in the world in 1700, and the East India Company tried to strip it bare for a century thereafter. Dalrymple calls it "the single largest transfer of wealth until the Nazis." What was in the 17th century the production capital of the world for textiles was forced to become a market for British-made textiles. Statues, jewels, and various other valuables were moved from the palaces of Bengal to the townhouses of the English countryside. Bengal in particular suffered the worst of Company tax farming, highlighted by the Great Bengal famine of 1770.

The primary tool of expansion for the company was the Sepoy. The Sepoys were raised locally with European training and equipment, who changed warfare in present-day South Asia. Mounted forces and their superior mobility had been king on the region's battlefields for a thousand years, with cannon so well integrated that the Mughals fought with cannon mounted on elephants; all were no match to line infantry with decent discipline supported with field cannon. Repeatedly, a few thousand company sepoys fought vastly larger Mughal forces numerically and came out victorious. Afghan, Mughal and Maratha factions started creating their own European-style forces, often with French equipment, as the chaos intensified and the stakes were raised. Ultimately, the company won out, generally through as much diplomacy and state-craft as through fraud and deception. The gradual rise of the East India Company within the Mughal network culminated in the Second Anglo-Maratha War , in which the Company successfully ousted the Maratha, the Empire's official protectors, at the high water point in their rise to power, and installed a young Mughal Prince as Emperor, with the Company as the de jure protectors of the Empire from their position of direct control in Bengal. This relationship was repeatedly strained as the Company continued its expansion and exploitation, however it lasted in some form until 1858, when the last Mughal Emperor was exiled as the Company was disbanded and its assets were taken over by the British Crown.

In 1634 the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan extended his hospitality to English traders to Bengal , the richest region of the empire, and in 1717 customs duties were completely waived for the English in Bengal. By then, the Company's mainstay businesses were in cotton, silk, opium, indigo dye , saltpetre and tea. Meanwhile, the Dutch, the Company's most aggressive competitors, had expanded their monopoly of the spice trade in the Straits of Malacca by ousting the Portuguese in 1640 - 1641. With reduced Portuguese and Spanish influence in the region, the EIC and VOC entered a period of intense competition, resulting in the Anglo-Dutch wars of the 17th and 18th centuries. The British were also interested in trans-Himalayan trade routes, as they would create access to untapped markets for British manufactured goods in Tibet and China. This economic interest was showcased by the Anglo Nepalese war (1814 - 1816).

Expansion across Asia

Within the first two decades of the 17th century, the Dutch East India Company or Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie , (VOC) was the wealthiest commercial operation in the world with 50,000 employees worldwide and a private fleet of 200 ships. It specialized in the spice trade and gave its shareholders 40% annual dividend.

The British East India Company was fiercely competitive with the Dutch and French throughout the 17th and 18th centuries over spices from the Spice Islands . Some spices, at the time, could only be found on these islands, such as nutmeg and cloves; and they could bring profits as high as 400 percent from one voyage.

The tension was so high between the Dutch and the British East Indies Trading Companies that it escalated into at least four Anglo-Dutch wars: 1652-1654, 1665-1667, 1672-1674 and 1780-1784.

Competition arose in 1635 when Charles I granted a trading license to Sir William Courteen , which permitted the rival Courteen association to trade with the east at any location in which the EIC had no presence.

In an act aimed at strengthening the power of the EIC, King Charles II granted the EIC (in a series of five acts around 1670) the rights to autonomous territorial acquisitions, to mint money, to command fortresses and troops and form alliances, to make war and peace, and to exercise both civil and criminal jurisdiction over the acquired areas.

In 1689, a Mughal fleet commanded by Sidi Yaqub attacked Bombay. After a year of resistance the EIC surrendered in 1690, and the company sent envoys to Aurangzeb Is camp to plead for a pardon. The company's envoys had to prostrate themselves before the emperor, pay a large indemnity, and promise better behavior in the future. The emperor withdrew his troops, and the company subsequently re-established itself in Bombay and set up a new base in Calcutta.

Brain Tumor disease | Symptoms and Signs, Pathophysiology, Different Types of MRI Scans

A brain tumor (sometimes referred to as brain cancer ) occurs when a group of cells within the brain turn cancerous and grow out of control, creating a mass. There are two main types of tumors : malignant (cancerous) tumors and benign (non-cancerous) tumors. These can be further classified as primary tumors , which start within the brain, and secondary tumors, which most commonly have spread from tumors located outside the brain, known as brain metastasis tumors. All types of brain tumors may produce symptoms that vary depending on the size of the tumor and the part of the brain that is involved. Where symptoms exist, they may include headaches, seizures , problems with vision , vomiting and mental changes. Other symptoms may include difficulty walking, speaking, with sensations, or unconsciousness.

The cause of most brain tumors is unknown, though up to 4% of brain cancers may be caused by CT scan radiation. Uncommon risk factors include exposure to vinyl chloride , Epstein-Barr virus , ionizing radiation , and inherited syndromes such as neurofibromatosis , tuberous sclerosis , and von Hippel-Lindau Disease. Studies on mobile phone exposure have not shown a clear risk. The most common types of primary tumors in adults are meningiomas (usually benign) and astrocytomas such as glioblastomas. In children, the most common type is a malignant medulloblastoma. Diagnosis is usually by medical examination along with computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The result is then often confirmed by a biopsy. Based on the findings, the tumors are divided into different grades of severity.

Treatment may include some combination of surgery , radiation therapy and chemotherapy. If seizures occur, anticonvulsant medication may be needed. Dexamethasone and furosemide are medications that may be used to decrease swelling around the tumor. Some tumors grow gradually, requiring only monitoring and possibly needing no further intervention. Treatments that use a person's immune system are being studied. Outcomes for malignant tumors vary considerably depending on the type of tumor and how far it has spread at diagnosis. Although benign tumors only grow in one area, they may still be life-threatening depending on their size and location. Malignant glioblastomas usually have very poor outcomes, while benign meningiomas usually have good outcomes. The average five-year survival rate for all (malignant) brain cancers in the United States is 33%.

Secondary, or metastatic , brain tumors are about four times as common as primary brain tumors, with about half of metastases coming from lung cancer. Primary brain tumors occur in around 250,000 people a year globally, and make up less than 2% of cancers. In children younger than 15, brain tumors are second only to acute lymphoblastic leukemia as the most common form of cancer. In New South Wales, Australia in 2005, the average lifetime economic cost of a case of brain cancer was AU$1.9 million, the greatest of any type of cancer.

Symptoms and Signs

The signs and symptoms of brain tumors are broad. People may experience symptoms regardless of whether the tumor is benign (not cancerous) or cancerous. Primary and secondary brain tumors present with similar symptoms, depending on the location, size, and rate of growth of the tumor. For example, larger tumors in the frontal lobe can cause changes in the ability to think. However, a smaller tumor in an area such as Wernicke's area (small area responsible for language comprehension) can result in a greater loss of function.

Headaches

Headaches as a result of raised intracranial pressure can be an early symptom of brain cancers. However, isolated headache without other symptoms is rare, and other symptoms including visual abnormalities may occur before headaches become common. Certain warning signs for headache exist which make the headache more likely to be associated with brain cancer. These are defined as "abnormal neurological examination, headache worsened by Valsalva maneuver , headache causing awakening from sleep, new headache in the older population, progressively worsening headache, atypical headache features, or patients who do not fulfill the strict definition of migraine". Other associated signs are headaches that are worse in the morning or that subside after vomiting.

Location-specific symptoms

The brain is divided into lobes and each lobe or area has its own function. A tumor in any of these lobes may affect the area's performance. The symptoms experienced are often linked to the location of the tumor, but each person may experience something different.

• Frontal lobe : Tumors may contribute to poor reasoning, inappropriate social behavior, personality changes, poor planning, lower inhibition, and decreased production of speech ( Broca's area ).

• Temporal lobe : Tumors in this lobe may contribute to poor memory, loss of hearing, and difficulty in language comprehension ( Wernicke's area is located in this lobe).

• Parietal lobe : Tumors here may result in poor interpretation of languages, difficulty with speaking, writing, drawing, naming, and recognizing, and poor spatial and visual perception.

• Occipital lobe : Damage to this lobe may result in poor vision or loss of vision.

• Cerebellum : Tumors in this area may cause poor balance, muscle movement, and posture.

• Brain stem : Tumors on the brainstem can cause seizures, endocrine problems, respiratory changes, visual changes, headaches and partial paralysis.

• Leptomeninges : Tumors that spread to the leptomeninges, the lining of the brain, may cause cranial nerve palsies such as facial paralysis, abnormalities of eye movement, abnormalities of facial sensation or swallowing difficulty , depending on which cranial nerves are involved.

Behavior changes

A person's personality may be altered due to the tumor damaging lobes of the brain. Since the frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes control inhibition, emotions, mood, judgment, reasoning, and behavior, a tumor in those regions can cause inappropriate social behavior, temper tantrums, laughing at things which merit no laughter, and even psychological symptoms such as depression and anxiety. More research is needed into the effectiveness and safety of medication for depression in people with brain tumors.

Personality changes can have damaging effects such as unemployment, unstable relationships, and a lack of control.

Cause

A known cause of brain cancers is ionizing radiation. Approximately 4% of brain cancers in the general population are caused by CT-scan radiation. For brain cancers that follow a CT scan at lags of 2 years or more, it has been estimated that 40% are attributable to CT-scan radiation. The risk of brain cancer is dose dependent, with the relative risk increasing by 0.8 for every 100 gray of ionizing radiation received. At this dose, approximately 6391 people would have to be exposed to cause 1 case of brain cancer. Ionizing radiation to the head as part of treatment for other cancers is also a risk factor for developing brain cancer.

Mutations and deletions of tumor suppressor genes , such as P53 , are thought to be the cause of some forms of brain tumor. Inherited conditions, such as Von Hippel-Lindau disease , tuberous sclerosis , multiple endocrine neoplasia , and neurofibromatosis type 2 carry a high risk for the development of brain tumors. People with celiac disease have a slightly increased risk of developing brain tumors. Smoking may increase the risk, but evidence of this remains unclear.

Although studies have not shown any link between cell-phone or mobile-phone radiation and the occurrence of brain tumors, the World Health Organization has classified mobile-phone radiation on the IARC scale into Group 2B-possibly carcinogenic. The claim that cell-phone usage may cause brain cancer is likely based on epidemiological studies which observed a slight increase in glioma risk among heavy users of wireless phones. When those studies were conducted, GSM (2G) phones were in use. Modern, third-generation (3G) phones emit, on average, about 1% of the energy emitted by those GSM (2G) phones, and therefore the finding of an association between cell-phone usage and increased risk of brain cancer is not based upon current phone usage.

Pathophysiology

Meninges

Human brains are surrounded by a system of connective tissue membranes called meninges that separate the brain from the skull . This three-layered covering is composed of (from the outside in) the dura mater , arachnoid mater , and pia mater . The arachnoid and pia are physically connected and thus often considered as a single layer, the leptomeninges. Between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater is the subarachnoid space which contains cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). This fluid circulates in the narrow spaces between cells and through the cavities in the brain called ventricles , to support and protect the brain tissue. Blood vessels enter the central nervous system through the perivascular space above the pia mater. The cells in the blood vessel walls are joined tightly, forming the blood-brain barrier which protects the brain from toxins that might enter through the blood.

Tumors of the meninges are meningiomas and are often benign. Although not technically a tumor of brain tissue, they are often considered brain tumors since they protrude into the space where the brain is, causing symptoms. Since they are usually slow-growing tumors, meningiomas can be quite large by the time symptoms appear.

Brain matter

The three largest divisions of the brain are the cerebral cortex , cerebellum and the brainstem . These areas are composed of two broad classes of cells: neurons and glia . These two cell types are equally numerous in the brain as a whole, although glial cells outnumber neurons roughly 4 to 1 in the cerebral cortex . Glia come in several types, which perform a number of critical functions, including structural support, metabolic support, insulation, and guidance of development. Primary tumors of the glial cells are called gliomas and are often malignant by the time they are diagnosed.

The thalamus and hypothalamus are major divisions of the diencephalon , with the pituitary gland and pineal gland attached at the bottom; tumors of the pituitary and pineal gland are often benign.

The brainstem lies between the large cerebral cortex and the spinal cord. It is divided into the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata.

Diagnosis

There are no specific signs or symptoms for brain cancer, but the presence of a combination of symptoms and the lack of alternative causes may indicate a brain tumor. A medical history aids in the diagnosis. Clinical and laboratory investigations will serve to exclude infections as the cause of the symptoms.

Brain tumors, when compared to tumors in other areas of the body, pose a challenge for diagnosis. Commonly, radioactive tracers are uptaken in large volumes in tumors due to the high activity of tumor cells, allowing for radioactive imaging of the tumor. However, most of the brain is separated from the blood by the blood-brain barrier (BBB), a membrane that exerts a strict control over what substances are allowed to pass into the brain. Therefore, many tracers that may reach tumors in other areas of the body would easily be unable to reach brain tumors until there was a disruption of the BBB by the tumor. Disruption of the BBB is well imaged via MRI or CT scan, and is therefore regarded as the main diagnostic indicator for malignant gliomas, meningiomas, and brain metastases.

Imaging

Medical imaging plays a central role in the diagnosis of brain tumors. Early imaging methods- invasive and sometimes dangerous- such as pneumoencephalography and cerebral angiography have been replaced by non-invasive, high-resolution techniques, especially magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT) scans. MRI with contrast enhancement is the preferred imaging test in the diagnosis of brain tumors. Glioblastomas usually enhance with contrast on Tl MRI weighted MRI imaging, and on T2 with FLAIR imaging showing hyperintense cerebral edema. Low grade gliomas are usually hypointense on Tl MRI, and hyperintense with T2 with FLAIR MRI. Meningiomas are usually homogenously enhanced with dural thickening on MRI.

Treatment with radiation can lead to treatment induced changes in the brain, including radiation necrosis (death of brain tissue due to radiation treatments) visible on brain imaging and which can be difficult to differentiate from tumor recurrence.

Different Types of MRI Scans

Magnetic Resonance Angiography (MRA)

looks at the blood vessels in the brain. In the diagnosis of brain tumor, MRAs are typically carried out before surgery to help surgeons get a better understanding of the tumor vasculature. For example, a study was done where surgeons were able to separate benign brain tumors from malignant ones by analyzing the shapes of the blood vessels that were extracted from MRA. Although not required, some MRAs may inject contrast agent, gadolinium, into the patient to get an enhanced image.

Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (MRS)

measures the metabolic changes or chemical changes inside the tumor. The most common MRS is proton spectroscopy with its frequency measured in parts per million (ppm). Gliomas or malignant brain tumors have different spectra from normal brain tissue in that they have greater choline levels and lower N-acetyl aspartate (NAA) signals. Using MRS in brain tumor diagnosis can help doctors identify the type of tumor and its aggressiveness. For example, benign brain tumors or meningioma have increased alanine levels. It can also help to distinguish brain tumors from scar tissues or dead tissues caused by previous radiation treatment, which does not have increased choline levels that brain tumors have, and from tumor-mimicking lesions such as abscesses or infarcts.

Perfusion Magnetic Resonance Imaging (pMRI)

assesses the blood volume and blood flow of different parts of the brain and brain tumors. pMRl requires the injection of contrast agent, usually gadopentetate dimeglumine (Gd-DTPA) into the veins in order to enhance the contrast. pMRl provides a cerebral blood volume map that shows the tumor vascularity and angiogenesis. Brain tumors would require a larger blood supply and thus, would show a higher cerebral blood volume on the pMRl map. The vascular morphology and degree of angiogenesis from pMRl help to determine the grade and malignancy of brain tumors. For brain tumor diagnosis, pMRl is useful in determining the best site to perform biopsy and to help reduce sampling error. pMRl is also valuable for after treatment to determine if the abnormal area is a remaining tumor or a scar tissue. For patients that are undergoing anti-angiogenesis cancer therapy, pMRl can give the doctors a better sense of efficacy of the treatment by monitoring tumor cerebral blood volume.

Functional MRI (fMRI)

measures blood flow changes in active parts of the brain while the patient is performing tasks and provides specific locations of the brain that are responsible for certain functions. Before performing a brain tumor surgery on patients, neurosurgeons would use fMRI to avoid damage to structures of the brain that correspond with important brain functions while resecting the tumor at the same time. Preoperative fMRI is important because it is often difficult to distinguish the anatomy near the tumor as it distorts its surrounding regions. Neurosurgeons would use fMRI to plan whether to perform a resection where the tumor is surgically removed as much as possible, a biopsy where they take a surgical sampling amount to provide a diagnosis, or to not undergo surgery at all. For example, a neurosurgeon may be opposed to resecting a tumor near the motor cortex as that would affect the patient's movements. Without preoperative fMRI, the neurosurgeon would have to perform an awake-craniotomy where the patient would have to interact during open surgery to see if tumor removal would affect important brain functions.

Diffusion Weighted Imaging (DWI)

a form of MRI that measures random Brownian motion of water molecules along a magnetic field gradient. For brain tumor diagnosis, measurement of apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) in brain tumors allows doctors to categorize tumor type. Most brain tumors have higher ADC than normal brain tissues and doctors can match the observed ADC of the patient's brain tumor with a list of accepted ADC to identify tumor type. DWI is also useful for treatment and therapy purposes where changes in diffusion can be analyzed in response to drug, radiation, or gene therapy. Successful response results in apoptosis and increase in diffusion while failed treatment results in unchanged diffusion values.

Other Types of Imaging Techniques

Computed Tomography (CT) Scan

uses x-rays to take pictures from different angles and computer processing to combine the pictures into a 3D image. A CT scan usually serves as an alternative to MRI in cases where the patient cannot have an MRI due to claustrophobia or pacemaker. Compared to MRI, a CT scan shows a more detailed image of the bone structures near the tumor and can be used to measure the tumor’s size. Like an MRI, a contrast dye may also be injected into the veins or ingested by mouth before a CT scan to better outline any tumors that may be present. CT scans use contrast materials that are iodine-based and barium sulfate compounds. The downside of using CT scans as opposed to MRI is that some brain tumors do not show up well on CT scans because some intra-axial masses are faint and resemble normal brain tissue. In some scenarios, brain tumors in CT scans may be mistaken for infarction, infection, and demyelination. To suspect that an intra-axial mass is a brain tumor instead of other possibilities, there must be unexplained calcifications in the brain, preservation of the cortex, and disproportionate mass effect.

CT Angiography (CTA)

provides information about the blood vessels in the brain using X-rays. A contrast agent is always required to be injected into the patient in the CT scanner. CTA serves as an alternative to MRA.

Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Scan

uses radiolabelled substances, such as FDG which are taken up by cells that are actively dividing. Tumor cells are more actively dividing so they would absorb more of the radioactive substance. After injection, a scanner would be used to create an image of the radioactive areas in the brain. PET scans are used more often for high-grade tumors than for low-grade tumors. It is useful after treatment to help doctors determine if the abnormal area on an MRI image is a remaining tumor or a scar tissue. Scar tissues will not show up on PET scans while tumors will.

Indian Home Rule movement | Introduction, Objectives of the Home Rule Movement, Background of the Home Rule Movement

Home Rule Movement The All India Home Rule League was a national organisation founded in 1916 by Bal Gangadhar Tilak to lead the national demand for self-rule in India under the name "Home Rule". It was done to achieve the status of India as a Dominion within the British Raj. At the time, Australia , Canada , South Africa , New Zealand and Newfoundland were established as Dominions within the British Empire.

At the start of the First World War , the moderates of the Indian National Congress decided to help Britain. The reason behind this decision of the Indian National Congress was probably that if India helps Britain , then Britain will free India after the war. But soon the Indian National Congress realized that Britain would never do this and hence the Indian leaders became dissatisfied and started looking for some other way. This dissatisfaction became the reason for the birth of the Home Rule Movement. Between 1915 and 1916, two Home Rule Leagues were established. 'Pune Home Rule League' was established by Bal Gangadhar Tilak and 'Madras Home Rule League' was established by Annie Besant . The Home Rule League started functioning as an auxiliary organization of the Indian National Congress. The objective of this movement was to achieve self-rule but the use of weapons was not allowed in this movement.

During the Home Rule Movement , Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Annie Besant designed a flag in 1917. This flag had five red and four green diagonal stripes. Seven stars were also inscribed on it, but this flag did not become very popular among the people.

Introduction

Mrs. Anne Besant was a resident of Ireland. She was the director of the Theosophical Society in India . She was very impressed with Indian civilization and culture. Therefore, she left Ireland and settled in India and started considering India as her motherland. At this time, the Home Rule League was established in Ireland under the leadership of Irish leader Redmond, which wanted to achieve Home Rule and self-rule for Ireland through legal and peaceful means. When Anne Besant went to England in 191 3, the Home Rule League of Ireland suggested her to start the Home Rule Movement to make India independent. Mrs. Anne Besant wanted to give India the same kind of Swaraj as was in other colonies of the British Empire, that is, she was keen to give India Dominion Status. With this objective, on returning to India, she joined the Congress and launched the Home Rule Movement by uniting the liberals and extremists.

Objectives of the Home Rule Movement

The Home Rule Movement was a legal movement. The main objectives of this movement were as follows-

• Its primary objective was to obtain self-rule for India. Annie Besant wanted to give India the same kind of self-rule as was in other colonies of the British Empire. Clarifying the intent of the Home Rule Movement, Mrs. Annie Besant wrote in the first issue of her weekly paper Common Wheell that, "By political reforms, we mean the establishment of self-rule in the form of village panchayats, district boards, municipalities, provincial assemblies and a national parliament. The rights of this national parliament will be the same as those of the legislative assemblies of self-governing colonies. Whatever name they may be given, and when representatives of self-governing states are taken to the Parliament of the British Empire, a representative of India should also reach that Parliament."

• The aim of this movement was neither to drive the British out of India nor to hinder their war efforts. On the contrary, they said that a self-ruled India would prove more helpful to the British than a war. Indians were helping the British in the war because they hoped that after the war was over, the British would give them self-rule. Anne Besant believed that if the British government satisfied them by giving them self-rule during the war itself, then Indians would help the British in the war with more dedication and resources. Anne Besant was of the opinion that a subjugated India cannot be as helpful to the British Empire as an independent India. Thus, the aim of this movement was to indirectly help Britain in the war.

• One of the aims of Home Rule was to prevent Indian politics from going towards the extreme. Mrs. Anne Besant studied Indian political trends carefully and had come to the conclusion that if the movement was not launched in peaceful and legal ways, then revolutionaries and terrorists would dominate Indian politics. To achieve this objective, she considered it better to start a peaceful and legal movement. According to Dr. Zakaria, "Her plan was to prevent the extreme nationalists from joining the revolutionaries. She wanted to keep the Indians satisfied by giving them self-rule under the British Empire." To achieve this objective, she launched the Home Rule Movement so that the influence of revolutionaries could be stopped in Indian politics.

• Indian politics had become sluggish during the war period and the path of progress of the national movement was blocked due to lack of active program and effective leadership. Therefore, it was necessary to wake up the Indian people from their slumber. To fulfill this objective, Anne Besant started the Home Rule Movement. Mrs. Anne Besant said, "l am an Indian tom-tom whose job is to wake up the sleeping Indians, so that they get up and do something for their motherland. The Home Rule Movement was different from the liberal movement. It was not a plea for self-rule for India, but an expression of a rightful demand, that is, the attainment of self-rule was the birthright of Indians. Tilak had said, "Home Rule is my birthright, I will get it." Mrs. Anne Besant said that Home Rule is India's right and it is foolish to talk about getting it as a reward for loyalty. India, as a nation, demands its judicial right from the British Empire. India used to demand it before the war, India is demanding it in the midst of the war and will demand it after the war. But it demands this justice not as a reward but as a right; no one should have any misconception about this.

Background, beginning and progress of the movement

Bal Gangadhar Tilak was released from jail on 16 June 1914 after serving a long sentence of six years. Most of his imprisonment was spent in Mandalay (Burma). When he returned to India, he felt that the country he had left behind had changed a lot. Aurobindo Ghosh, the revolutionary leader of the Swadeshi movement, had taken sanyaas and started living in Pondicherry. Lala Lajpat Rai was in America. The Indian National Congress had not yet recovered from the combined shock of the Surat partition, the repressive attacks of the British on the agitators and the disappointment of the moderate nationalists due to the constitutional reforms of 1909.

Tilak thought that first of all, extremists should also be included in the Congress. Tilak was convinced that the Indian National Congress had become synonymous with the Indian National Movement and no national movement could be successful without its permission. With the aim of convincing the moderates, winning their confidence and ensuring that the British government does not adopt the path of repression in future, he declared, “clearly say that we want reforms in the administrative system in India as the agitators in Ireland are demanding. We have no intention of overthrowing the British government. I have no hesitation in saying that the violent incidents that have taken place in various parts of India are not only contrary to my ideology, but due to them the process of our political development has also slowed down." He reiterated his loyalty towards the British government and appealed to the Indian people to support the British government in times of crisis.

All the leaders of the moderate camp had now started realizing that whatever they had done in Surat in 1907 was wrong. They were also upset with the inaction of the Congress. They liked Tilak's appeal a lot. Apart from this, they were constantly under pressure from Anne Besant to re-intensify the nationalist political movement in the country. Anne Besant had recently joined the Congress. In 1914, she was 66 years old. Her political life had started in England where she participated in the promotion of free thought, radicalism, Fabianism and Theosophy. She came to India in 1893, with the aim of working for the Theosophical Society. She opened her office in Adyar, a suburb of Madras, and started promoting Theosophy in 1907. Within a short time, she gained a large number of supporters. In which mostly educated people of those communities were involved, in which cultural renaissance had not yet taken place. In 1914, Anne Besant decided to expand the scope of her activities and planned to launch a movement demanding self-rule in India like the Home Rule League of Ireland. She felt that for this, permission of the Congress and support of extremist agitators was necessary. To get the support of the extremists, it was necessary to include them in the Congress. Anne Besant started convincing the extremist leaders of the Congress to allow Tilak and his extremist associates to join the Congress. But the Congress session of 1914 ruined her efforts. Ferozshah Mehta and his moderate supporters of Bombay convinced Gokhale and the moderates of Bengal to keep the extremists out. After this, Tilak and Anne Besant decided to launch a political movement on their own and at the same time they kept pressurizing the Congress to make the extremists its members again. 

In early 1915, Anne Besant started a movement through two newspapers, INew Indial and 'Common Wheel'. Public meetings and conferences were organised. Her demand was that just as the people in white colonies have been given the right to form their own government, the Indian people should also get the right to self-governance. After April 1915, Anne Besant adopted an even more strict and militant stance.

Meanwhile, Lokmanya Tilak started his political activities. But he was very cautious that the moderate camp of the Congress should not get angry or the Congress should not feel that Tilak's activities were not in sync with the Congress's policy. His heartfelt desire was to join the Congress in some way. Tilak called a conference of his supporters in Poona in 1915, in which it was decided that an institution should be formed to make the rural people familiar with the Congress's objectives and activities. After this decision, the local organizations formed in various cities of Maharashtra in August and September of the same year spent all their energy on establishing unity in the Congress instead of intensifying political activities. They kept stressing that unity in the Congress is very important for any national movement. To put pressure on some conservatives of the moderate Congress, Tilak sometimes resorted to threats, but he was confident that he would convince most of the moderate leaders.

The annual session of the Congress was held in December 191 5 and the efforts of Tilak and Annie Besant were successful. It was decided to take the extremists back into the Congress. After the death of Firozshah Mehta, the opposition of the moderates of Bombay proved ineffective. Gokhale had died. Annie Besant was successful in bringing the extremists back into the Congress but could not get the approval of the Congress and the Muslim League on her proposal to form the Home Rule League. But her proposals for propaganda work to revive the Congress committees at the local level were accepted by the Congress but she knew the character and strength of the Congress of that time. She knew that the Congress had approved these programs, but it would not implement them. Therefore, she had also put a condition with her proposal that if the Congress did not implement these programs by September 191 6, then it would form its own organization.

Tilak had got the right to return to Congress and he had not made any promise to Congress, so he announced the formation of ‘Home Rule League' in the provincial conference held in Belgaum in April 1916. Annie Besant's supporters also started getting restless. They were not ready to wait till September. They pressurized Annie Besant and got permission to establish Home Rule Group. Jamnadas Dwarkadas, Shankarlal Baker and Indulal Yagnik started the circulation of a newspaper 'Young India' in Bombay and started collecting funds from every corner of the country to publish pamphlets in English and regional languages. Annie Besant waited till September. Congress was completely inactive. She also announced the establishment of Home Rule League and appointed her supporter George Arundale as the organizing secretary. Tilak and Annie Besant also divided the areas of work for their respective leagues, so that there is no confusion. Tilak's league was responsible for Karnataka, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Berar. The rest of the country was the responsibility of Annie Besant's league. These two did not merge. The reason was that some of Annie Besant's supporters did not like Tilak and some of Tilak's supporters did not like Annie Besant, but there was no quarrel between them.

Tilak toured Maharashtra. He propagated the Home Rule Movement extensively. He explained to the people why it was needed and what were its objectives. In his own words, "India is like a son who has grown up. The need of the hour is that the father or guardian should give this son his due rights. The Indian people will have to take their rights now. They have full right to it." Tilak linked the demand for education in regional languages and linguistic states with the demand for 'Swarajl. He said, "The demand for formation of provinces on the basis of Marathi, Telugu, Kannada and other languages means that the medium of education should be the regional language. Do the British educate their people in French? Do the Germans educate their people in English or the Turks educate them in French." In 1915, in the provincial conference of Bombay, Tilak moved a condolence motion on the death of Gokhale. B.B. As Aalur stood up to support it, Tilak said, "Speak in Kannada to assert the rights of Kannada language." This shows that Tilak was not a regional Marathi narrow minded person.

Tilak was not casteist in matters of untouchability and non-Brahmins. Non-Brahmins of Maharashtra once sent separate memorandums to the government that they have nothing to do with the demands of the upper classes. Many people opposed it. But Tilak explained to these protesters, "You people should be patient. If we can make them understand that we are with them and there is no difference between their demands and ours, then I am sure that their movement to eradicate inequality will join our struggle." He explained to the non-Brahmins that the fight is not between Brahmins and non-Brahmins, the difference is between educated and uneducated. Brahmins are more educated than non-Brahmins. Therefore, the government that advocates for non-Brahmins is also forced to recruit Brahmins in government jobs. Despite its autocratic attitude towards Brahmins, the government is giving them place in the administration because it believes that only educated people can run the administration. In a conference organized for the abolition of untouchability, Tilak had said, "If even God tolerates untouchability, I will not believe in God."

There is no religious appeal in the speeches given by Tilak at that time. The demand for Home Rule was completely based on secularism. Tilak said that the reason for opposing the British is not that they are followers of some other religion, we oppose them because they are not doing anything in the interest of the Indian people. In the words of Tilak, "Whether he is an Englishman or a Muslim, if he works for the benefit of the people of this country, then he is not a stranger to us. This strangerness has no relation with religion or profession. This is a question directly related to interests.

Tilak further intensified his propaganda work by publishing six Marathi and two English pamphlets. 47 thousand pamphlets were sold. Later these pamphlets were printed in Gujarati and Kannada languages. Six branches of the League were formed. One each in Central Maharashtra, Bombay Nagar, Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh and two in Berar.

As the Home Rule movement started gaining momentum, the government intensified its repressive actions. To attack this movement, the government chose a special day. 23 July 1916 was Tilak's 60th birthday. A big gathering was organized and Tilak was presented with a bag of one lakh rupees. The government gave him another reward on this occasion. He was given a show cause notice. In which it was written that why should a ban not be imposed on him due to his activities. He was asked to pay a bond of sixty thousand rupees. This was perhaps the most important gift for Tilak. He said, "Now the Home Rule movement will spread like wildfire. Government repression will further fuel the fire of rebellion."

A whole team of lawyers led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah fought the case on behalf of Tilak. Tilak lost the case in the magistrate's court but in November the High Court declared him innocent. This victory was appreciated everywhere. Gandhi wrote in the 'Young India’ newspaper, "This is a great victory for freedom of expression. It is a great success for the Home Rule movement." Tilak took advantage of this opportunity and started saying in his public speeches that the government has given permission to express the demand for Home Rule or self-rule. Tilak and his colleagues intensified the propaganda work and by April 1917 they made 14 thousand members.

Annie Besant's League also started working from September 1916 but its organization was very loose. Any three persons could open a branch anywhere while Tilak's League had a very strong organization, the work and tasks of all the six branches were determined. Annie Besant's League had two hundred branches. Many branches were in towns and cities, the rest in villages, a few villages came under one branch. Although the executive council was elected, all the work was looked after by Annie Besant and her associates Arundel, C.D. Ramaswamy lyer and B.P. Wadia. There was no organized way of instructing the members. Either the members were given instructions personally or people knew what they had to do by reading Arundel's articles in New India. Annie Besant's League lagged behind Tilak's League in making members. By March 1917, the number of members of her League was only 7000. Jawaharlal Nehru, B. Chakravarti and J. Banerjee also joined it.

At present it is difficult to estimate the strength of the League from the count of branches, because some of them were quite active and some were inactive, as they were mostly limited to the activities of the Theosophical Society. For example, Madras city had the largest number of branches, but the branches in Bombay, cities of Uttar Pradesh and rural areas of Gujarat were quite active. However, their number was very less.

The sole aim of all these activities was to launch a mass movement for the demand of Home Rule. For this, it was very important to impart political education and start political debates. Arundel, through 'New Indial, asked his supporters to initiate political debates, establish libraries that provided information about national politics, organize classes to impart political education to students, argue in support of 'Home Rule' among friends and work to create participation in the movement. Many branches implemented these. Special attention was paid to conducting political debates.

The intensity of Home Rule propaganda can be gauged from the fact that by September 191 6, three lakh pamphlets printed from the propaganda fund had been distributed. This propaganda fund had been established a few months earlier. These pamphlets contained a detailed account of the then government and arguments in support of Swaraj. After the establishment of Annie Besant's League, these pamphlets were printed again. They were also published in many regional languages. Along with this, public meetings and speeches continued. Whenever a nationwide protest was called for on any issue, all the branches of the League supported it. In November 1916, when Annie Besant was banned from going to Berar and Central Province, on Arundel's appeal, all the branches of the League organized protest meetings and sent protest proposals to the Viceroy and the Home Secretary. Similarly, in 1917, when Tilak was banned from going to Punjab and Delhi, protest meetings were held all over the country. All the branches of the League strongly opposed it. Many moderate Congressmen, who were agitated by the inaction of the Congress, also joined the Home Rule Movement. Gokhale's 'Servant of India Society was not allowed to become a member of the League, but they supported the 'Home Rule Movement' by giving speeches and distributing pamphlets among the public. In Uttar Pradesh, many moderate nationalists visited villages and towns with the workers of the Home Rule League in connection with the preparation of the Congress conference. Most of their meetings were held in the libraries of local courts, where students, businessmen and people from other professions gathered. And if the meeting was held on a market day, then farmers from the villages also participated in it. In these meetings, the issue of poverty and helplessness of India was raised. The prosperity of the past was recalled and light was thrown on the freedom movement of Europe and people were appealed to take inspiration from it. Hindi language was used in these meetings. The Moderates' support for the Home Rule League was not surprising, since the League was implementing the Moderates' political propaganda and educational programmes.

The Lucknow session of the Congress in 1916 was a good opportunity for the members of the Home Rule League to show their strength. Tilak's supporters created a tradition that the Congress continued to follow for many years. His supporters reserved a train to reach Lucknow, which some people called the 'Congress Special', while others called it the ‘Home Rule Special'. Arundel had asked every member of the League to make every possible effort to become a member of the Lucknow session.    

Bhimrao Ambedkar Biography | Early life, Education, Struggle against untouchability, Poona Pact

Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar (14 April 1891 - 6 December 1956), popularly known as Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar , was an Indian polymath, jurist, economist, politician , writer and social reformer. He inspired the Dalit Buddhist movement and campaigned against social discrimination against the untouchables ( Dalits). He also supported the rights of workers, peasants and women. He was the first Law and Justice Minister of independent India , the father of the Indian Constitution and one of the architects of the Republic of India.

Ambedkar was a brilliant student. He received doctorate degrees in economics from both Columbia University and the London School of Economics and also did research work in law , economics and political science. In the early part of his professional life, he was a professor of economics and also practiced law, and later life was more devoted to political activities. After this, Ambedkar got involved in the propaganda and discussions for the independence of India and published magazines. He advocated political rights and social freedom for Dalits and he played an important role in the creation of India.

He converted to Buddhism in 1956, fed up with the evil practices of untouchability and the practice of Hinduism . In 1990, he was posthumously awarded the Bharat Ratna, India's highest civilian honour. His birthday, 14 April ,is celebrated as Ambedkar Jayanti across the world, including India. Dr. Ambedkar's legacy includes numerous memorials and depictions in popular culture. He died on 6 December 1956, so Mahaparinirvan Diwas is celebrated every year on 6 December.

Early Life

Ambedkar was born on 14 April 1891 in the Mhow Nagar military cantonment in the Central India Province of British India (now Madhya Pradesh ). He was the 14th and last child of Ramji Maloji Sakpal and Bhimabai. His family was of Marathi origin, followers of Kabir sect and hailed from Ambadve village in Ratnagiri district of present-day Maharashtra. They belonged to the Hindu Mahar caste, which was then considered untouchable and due to this they had to face severe social and economic discrimination. Bhimrao Ambedkar's ancestors had served in the British East India Company 's army for a long time and his father Ramji Sakpal served in the Indian Army at Mhow Cantonment and while working here he reached the rank of Subedar. He received formal education in Marathi and English.

Due to his caste, the child Bhim had to face social resistance. Despite being capable of studying in school, student Bhimrao had to face many difficulties due to untouchability. On 7 November 1900, Ramji Sakpal enrolled his son Bhimrao's name as Bhiva Ramji Ambedvekar in the Government High School of Satara . His childhood name was 'Bhiva'. Ambedkar's original surname was Ambedvekar instead of Sakpal, which was related to his village Ambedve . Since people of Konkan province used to keep their surname from the name of the village, Ambedkar's surname Ambedvekar from his village Ambedve was registered in the school. Later, a Devrukhe Brahmin teacher Krishna Keshav Ambedkar, who had special affection for him, removed 'Ambedkar' from his name and added his simple surname 'Ambedkar'. From then to today he was known as Ambedkar.

Ramji Sakpal moved with his family to Bombay. In April 1906, when Bhimrao was about 15 years old, he was married to Ramabai , a nine-year-old girl. He was then studying in the fifth grade of English. Child marriage was prevalent in India in those days.

Education

Primary education

Ambedkar took admission in the first class of English on 7 November 1900 in the Government High School (now Pratap Singh High School) located at Rajwada Chowk in Satara city. His educational life started from this day, so 7 November is celebrated as Students' Day in Maharashtra . At that time he was called 'Bhival. At that time in the school, his name was recorded in the attendance register as ‘Bhiva Ramji Ambedkar' at number - 1914. When he passed the English fourth class examination, since this was an unusual thing among the untouchables, Bhimrao's success was celebrated as a public ceremony among the untouchables, and he was gifted a 'Biography of Buddha' written by his family friend and writer Dada Keluskar. After reading this, he came to know about Gautam Buddha and Buddhism for the first time and was impressed by their teachings.

Secondary education

In 1897, Ambedkar's family moved to Mumbai where he received further education at the Government High School on Elphinstone Road.

Undergraduate Studies at Bombay University

In 1907, he passed his matriculation examination and the following year he entered Elphinstone College, affiliated with the University of Bombay. He was the first from his community to receive education at this level.

By 1912, he had obtained a Bachelor of Arts (B.A.) in economics and political science from the University of Bombay , and began working with the Baroda state government. His wife had just moved her new family in and started work when she had to return to Bombay to see her ailing father, who died on 2 February 1913.

Postgraduate Studies at Columbia University

In 1913, Ambedkar moved to the United States at the age of 22, where he was awarded a Baroda state scholarship of $11.50 per month for three years under a scheme established by Sayajirao Gaekwad IlI ( Gaekwad of Baroda ) to provide opportunities for postgraduate education at Columbia University in New York City . Soon after arriving, he settled with a Parsi friend, Naval Bhathena, in Livingston Hall. In June 1915, he passed his Master of Arts (M.A.) examination, with economics as a major subject and sociology, history, philosophy and anthropology as the other subjects. He submitted his thesis for the postgraduate course on Ancient Indian Commerce . Ambedkar was influenced by John Dewey and his work on democracy.

In 1916, he was awarded a second Master of Arts degree for his second thesis, National Dividend of India-A Historical and Analytical Study , and finally headed for London. In 7976, he received a PhD in economics for his third thesis, Evolution of Provincial Finance in British India , and was officially awarded the PhD in 1927 after publishing the thesis. On 9 May, he presented a paper, Castes in India: Their System, Origin and Development, his first published paper, at a seminar organized by anthropologist Alexander Goldenweiser. He used the scholarship, which was for a period of three years, to complete the course in the US in just two years and went to London in 1916.

Postgraduate studies at the London School of Economics

In October 1916, he went to London and joined Gray's Inn to study law, and also to the London School of Economics where he began working on his doctorate thesis in economics . In June 1917, he was forced to temporarily abandon his studies and return to India as his scholarship from the Baroda State was terminated. On his return journey, his book collection was sent on a different ship from the one he was carrying, which was torpedoed by a German submarine. This was the period of World War I. He was allowed to return to London to finish his thesis within four years. While working as the military secretary of the Baroda State, Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar was disheartened by the discrimination that suddenly reappeared in his life and left his job and started working as a private tutor and accountant. He even started his own consultancy business which failed due to his social status. Through one of his English acquaintances, Lord Sydenham, a former Governor of Bombay, he was appointed Professor of Political Economy at Sydenham College of Commerce and Economics, Bombay. In 1920 , with the help of his Parsi friend Shahu Maharaj of Kolhapur and some personal savings, he was able to return to England once again and obtained a Master of Science ( M.Sc. ) degree in 1921 for which he submitted a research paper on Provincial Decentralisation of Imperial Finance in British India. In 1922, he was awarded the degree of Barrister-at-Law by Gray's Inn and was admitted to the British Bar as a barrister . In 1923, he obtained his D.Sc. (Doctor of Science) in Economics. His thesis was on "The Problem of the Rupee: Its Origin and Its Solution". Returning to India after completing his studies in London, Bhimrao Ambedkar stayed in Germany for three months , where he continued his study of economics at the University of Bonn . But due to lack of time, he could not stay in the university for long. His third and fourth doctorates (LL.D., Columbia University, 1952 and D.Litt., Osmania University , 1953) were honorary degrees.

Struggle against untouchability

Ambedkar said, "Untouchability is worse than slavery." Ambedkar was educated by the princely state of Baroda and was obliged to serve them. He was appointed military secretary to the Maharaja Gaekwad, but was forced to leave the job soon after due to caste discrimination. He described this incident in his autobiography, Waiting for a Visa. Subsequently, he tried again to find a livelihood for his growing family, working as an accountant, a private tutor, and setting up an investment consultancy business, but all these efforts failed when his clients discovered that he was an untouchable. In 1918, he became professor of political economy at the Sydenham College of Commerce and Economics in Mumbai . Though he was successful with students, other professors objected to him sharing drinking vessels with them. Apart from this, Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar was not only a caste reformer but also a social reformer.

Ambedkar was invited to testify as one of the leading scholars of India before the Southborough Committee, which was preparing the Government of India Act 1919. During the hearing, Ambedkar advocated separate electorates and reservations for Dalits and other religious communities. In 1920 , he began publishing the weekly Mooknayak from Bombay. The publication soon became popular with readers, and Ambedkar used it to criticise orthodox Hindu politicians and the Indian political community's reluctance to fight caste discrimination. His speech at a conference of the Dalit community greatly impressed Shahu IV, the local ruler of Kolhapur state, whose dining with Ambedkar caused a stir in conservative society.

While practising law in the Bombay High Court, he made efforts to promote the education and upliftment of the untouchables. His first organised effort was the establishment of the Central Institution Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha , aimed at promoting education and socio-economic reform as well as the welfare of the "outcasts", also referred to as the depressed classes. To safeguard Dalit rights, he launched five magazines, Mooknayak, Bahishkrit Bharat, Samata, Prabuddha Bharat and Janata.

In 1925, he was appointed to serve on the all-European Simon Commission, which had members on the Bombay Presidency Committee. The Commission led to protests across India. While its report was ignored by most Indians, Ambedkar separately wrote a set of recommendations for future constitutional reforms.

On 1 January 1927, Ambedkar organized a ceremony at the Koregaon Vijay Smarak (Jaystambh) to honour the Indian Mahar soldiers who died during the Battle of Koregaon on 1 January 1818 during the Second Anglo-Maratha War. Here the names of the soldiers belonging to the Mahar community were engraved on a marble plaque and Koregaon was made a symbol of Dalit self-respect.

By 1927, Dr. Ambedkar decided to launch a widespread and active movement against untouchability. Through public movements, satyagrahas and processions, he fought for the opening of public drinking water resources to all sections of society, and for the right of untouchables to enter Hindu temples. He led a satyagraha in the city of Mahad to secure the right of untouchables to draw water from the town's Chavdar reservoir. At a conference in late 1927, Ambedkar publicly denounced the ancient Hindu text, the Manusmriti , many verses of which openly endorse caste discrimination and casteism, for ideologically justifying caste discrimination and "untouchability" , and he ceremonially burned copies of the ancient text. On 25 December 1927, he led thousands of followers in burning copies of the Manusmriti. In memory of this, 25 December is celebrated every year as Manusmriti Dahan Diwas by Ambedkarites and Hindu Dalits.

In 1930, Ambedkar launched the Kalaram Mandir Satyagraha after three months of preparation. About 15,000 volunteers gathered in the Kalaram Mandir movement, making it one of the largest processions in Nashik . The procession was led by a military band, a batch of scouts, women and men walked in discipline, order and determination to see the Lord for the first time. When they reached the gates, the gates were closed by Brahmin officials.

Poona Pact

By now, Bhimrao Ambedkar had become the greatest untouchable political figure of all time. He bitterly criticised the major mainstream political parties for their alleged indifference towards the abolition of the caste system. Ambedkar also criticised the Indian National Congress and its leader Mahatma Gandhi , accusing them of treating the untouchables as objects of pity. Ambedkar was also dissatisfied with the failures of British rule, and advocated a separate political identity for the untouchables without any interference from either the Congress or the British. During the First Round Table Conference , a conference of the oppressed classes held in London on 8 August 1930, Ambedkar presented his political vision to the world, according to which the security of the oppressed class lay in its independence from both the government and the Congress.

We must make our own way and fight for our own ends...Political power is no remedy for the problems of the oppressed; their salvation lies in finding their proper place in society. They must change their evil way of living... They must be educated...There is a great need to shake off their sense of inferiority and to instill in them that divine discontent which is the source of all elevations.

Ambedkar criticised the Salt Satyagraha launched by the Congress and Gandhi. His growing popularity and public support among the untouchable community led to his being invited to attend the Second Round Table Conference in London in 1931. There he had a heated debate with Gandhi on the issue of separate electorates for untouchables, and the British agreed with Dr. Ambedkar's views. Gandhi, a strong opponent of separate electorates on the basis of religion and caste , feared that separate electorates for untouchables would divide Hindu society. Gandhi felt that a period of a few years should be given to the upper castes to change their hearts and forget untouchability, but this argument proved wrong when untouchability continued to be practised by upper caste Hindus even decades after the Poona Pact.

In 1932 , the British agreed with Ambedkar's ideas and announced a separate electorate for the untouchables. The announcement of the Communal Award was the result of the discussions held in the Round Table Conference. Under this agreement, the demand for political representation raised by Ambedkar was accepted and the Dalit class was given the right of two votes in the separate electorate. Under this, the Dalits could choose their representative with one vote and with the second vote they had the freedom to choose the representative of the general class. In this way, the Dalit representative was to be elected only by the votes of the Dalits. With this provision, the general class had no interference in the selection of the Dalit representative. But the Dalit class could play its role by using its second vote to elect the representative of the general class. In such a situation, the Dalit candidate elected by the Dalits could put forward the problems of the Dalits well, but it was not necessary for the non-Dalit candidate to even try to solve their problems. 

Gandhi was in Pune's Yerwada jail at this time. As soon as the Communal Award was announced, Gandhi first wrote a letter to the Prime Minister demanding its change. But when he felt that his demand was not being acted upon, he announced to observe a fast unto death. Then Ambedkar said that "It would have been good if Gandhi had observed this fast for the independence of the country, but he has observed this fast against the Dalit people, which is very regrettable. Whereas there was no objection from Gandhi's side regarding this right (of separate election) given to Indian Christians, Muslims and Sikhs." He also said that Gandhi is not an immortal person. God knows how many such people were born and died in India. Ambedkar said that he cannot sacrifice the interests of Dalits to save Gandhi's life. Now due to the fast unto death, Gandhi's health was continuously deteriorating. Gandhi's life was in great danger. And the entire Hindu society became opposed to Ambedkar.

Seeing the increasing pressure in the country, Ambedkar reached Yerwada Jail on 24 September 1932 at 5 pm. Here an agreement was reached between Gandhi and Ambedkar, which later came to be known as the Poona Pact . In this agreement, Ambedkar announced to give up the right of separate election given to Dalits in the Communal Award. But along with this, instead of the 78 reserved seats given in the Communal Award, the number of reserved seats in the Poona Pact was increased to 148. Along with this, sufficient amount was fixed in the education grant for untouchables in every province and recruitment of people of Dalit class was ensured in government jobs without any discrimination and in this way Ambedkar saved the life of Mahatma Gandhi. Ambedkar was not satisfied with this agreement, he termed Gandhi's fast as a drama played by Gandhi to deprive the untouchables of their political rights and to pressurize them to withdraw from their demand. In 1942, Ambedkar denounced this agreement and expressed his displeasure over the Poona Pact in his book ‘State of Minority’. Several condemnation meetings have been organised by the Republican Party of India before this.