Tipu Sultan and his war | Early military service

Tipu Sultan (Urdu: [ti:pu: sulla:n], Sultan Fateh Ali Sahab Tipu; 1 December 1751 —4 May 1799) commonly referred to as Sher-e-Mysore or "Tiger of was a ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore based in South India. He Mysore", was a ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore based in South India. He was a pioneer of rocket artillery. He expanded the iron-cased Mysorean rockets and commissioned the military manual Fathul Mujahidin. The economyof Mysore reached a zenith during his reign. He deployed rockets against advances of British forces and their allies during the Anglo-Mysore Wars, including the Battle of Pollilur and Siege of Srirangapatna.

Tipu Sultan and his father Hyder Ali used their French-trained army in alliance with the French in their struggle with the British, and in Mysore's struggles with other surrounding powers: against the Marathas, Sira, and rulers of Malabar, Kodagu, Bednore, Carnatic, and Travancore. Tipu became the ruler of Mysore upon his father's death from cancer in 1782 during the Second Anglo- Mysore War. He negotiated with the British in 1784 with the Treaty of Mangalore which ended the war in status quo ante bellum.

Tipu's conflicts with his neighbours included the Maratha—Mysore War, which ended with the signing of the Treaty of Gajendragad. Tipu remained an enemy of the British East India Company. He initiated an attack on British-allied Travancore in 1789. In the Third Anglo-Mysore War, he was forced into the Treaty of Seringapatam, losing a number of previously conquered territories, including Malabar and Mangalore. In the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War, a combined force of British East India Company troops supported by the Marathas and the Nizam of Hyderabad defeated Tipu. He was killed on 4 May 1799 while defending his stronghold of Seringapatam.

Tipu also introduced administrative innovations during his rule, including a new coinage system and calendar, and a new land revenue system, which initiated the growth of the Mysore silk industry. He is known for his patronage to Channapatna toys.

Childhood –

Tipu Sultan was born in Devanahalli, in present-day Bangalore Rural district, about 33 km (21 mi) north of Bangalore on 1 December 1751. He was named "Tipu Sultan" after the saint Tipu Mastan Aulia of Arcot. Being illiterate, Hyder was very particular in giving his eldest son a prince's education and a very early exposure to military and political affairs. At age of 17 onwards Tipu was given charge of diplomatic and military missions and supported his father Hyder in his wars.

Tipu's father, Hyder Ali, was a military officer in service to the Kingdom of Mysore who had become the de facto ruler of Mysore in 1761 while his mother Fatima Fakhr-un-Nisa was the daughter of Mir Muin-ud-Din, the governor of the fort of Kadapa. Hyder Ali appointed able teachers to give Tipu an early education in subjects like Urdu, Persian, Arabic, Kannada, Beary, Quran, Islamic jurisprudence, riding, shooting and fencing.

Language –

Tipu Sultan's mother tongue was Urdu. The French noted that "Their language is Moorish[Urdu] but they also speak Persian.' Moors at the time was a European designation for Urdu: "l have a deep knowledge of the common tongue of India, called Moors by the English, and Ourdouzebain  bythe natives of the land.

Early military service –

Early Conflicts-

Tipu Sultan was instructed in military tactics by French officers in the employment of his father. At age 15, he accompanied his father against the British in the First Mysore War in 1766. He commanded a corps of cavalry in the invasion of Carnatic in 1767 at age 16. He also took part in the First Anglo-Maratha War of 1775-1779.

Alexander Beatson, who published a volume on the Fourth Mysore War entitled View of the Origin and Conduct of the War with Tippoo Sultaun, described Tipu Sultan as follows: "His stature was about five feet eight inches; he had a short neck, square shoulders, and was rather corpulent: his limbs were small, particularly his feet and hands; he had large full eyes, small arched eyebrows, and an aquiline nose; his complexion was fair, and the general expression of his countenance, not void of dignity".

Second Anglo-Mysore War-

In 1779, the British captured the French-controlled port of Mahe which Tipu had placed under his protection, providing some troops for its defence. In response, Hyder launched an invasion of the Carnatic, with the aim of driving the British out of Madras. During this campaign in September 1780, Tipu Sultan was dispatched by Hyder Ali with 10,000 men and 18 guns to intercept Colonel William Baillie who was on his way to join Sir Hector Munro. In the Battle of Pollilur, Tipu defeated Baillie. Out of 360 Europeans, about 200 were captured alive, and the sepoys, who were about 3800 men, suffered very high casualties. Munro was moving south with a separate force to join Baillie, but on hearing the news of the defeat he retreated to Madras, abandoning his artillery in a water tank at Kanchipuram.

Tipu Sultan defeated Colonel Braithwaite at Annagudi near Tanjore on 18 February 1782. Braithwaite's forces, consisting of 100 Europeans, 300 cavalry, 1400 sepoys and 10 field pieces, was the standard size of the colonial armies. Tipu Sultan seized all guns and took the detachment prisoner. In December 1781 Tipu Sultan seized Chittur from the British. Tipu Sultan had gained sufficient military experience by the time Hyder Ali died on Friday, 6 December 1782. Some historians put Hyder Ali's death at 2 or 3 days later or before due to the Hijri date being 1 Muharram, 1197 as per some records in Persian (which can result in a difference of 1 to 3 days due to the Lunar Calendar). He became the ruler of Mysore on Sunday, 22 December 1782 (the

inscriptions in some of Tipu's regalia show it as 20 Muharram, 1197 Hijri Sunday) in a simple coronation ceremony. He subsequently worked on to check the advances of the British by making alliances with the Marathas and the Mughals. The Second Mysore War came to an end with the 1784 Treaty of Mangalore. 

Vitamins and Minerals | Importance of Vitamins, Minerals and Multivitamins

Vitamins and minerals are micronutrients required by the body to carry out a range of normal functions. However, these micronutrients are not produced in our bodies and must be derived from the food we eat. Vitamins are organic substances that are generally classified as either fat soluble or water soluble. Fat-soluble vitamins (vitamin A, vitamin D, vitamin E, and vitamin K) dissolve in fat and tend to accumulate in the body. Water-soluble vitamins (vitamin C and the B-complex vitamins, such as vitamin B6, vitamin B12, and folate) must dissolve in water before they can be absorbed by the body, and therefore cannot be stored. Any water-soluble vitamins unused by the body is primarily lost through urine.

Minerals are inorganic elements present in soil and water, which are absorbed by plants or consumed by animals. While you're likely familiar with calcium, s04ium, and po!assium, there is a range of other minerals, including trace minerals (e.g. _gopper, !04ine, and zinc) needed in very small amounts.

In the U.S., the National Academy of Medicine (formerly the Institute of Medicine) develops nutrient reference values called the Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs) for vitamins and minerals. [1] These are intended as a guide for good nutrition and as a scientific basis for the development of food guidelines in both the U.S. and Canada. The DRIS are specific to age, gender, and life stages, and cover more than 40 nutrient substances. The guidelines are based on available reports of deficiency and toxicity of each nutrient. Learn more about vitamins and minerals and their recommended intakes in the table below.

What About Multivitamins?

A diet that includes plenty of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, good protein packages, and healthful fats should provide most of the nutrients needed for good health. But not everyone manages to eat a healthful diet. Multivitamins can play an important role when nutritional requirements are not met through diet alone. Learn more about vitamin supplementation.

Did You Know?

Vitamins and their precise requirements have been controversial since their discovery in the late 1800s and early 1900s. It was the combined efforts of epidemiologists, physicians, chemists, and physiologists that led to our modern day understanding of vitamins and minerals. After years of observation, experiments, and trial and error, they were able to distinguish that some diseases were not caused by infections or toxins—a common belief at the time—but by vitamin deficiencies. [2] Chemists worked to identify a vitamin's chemical structure so it could be replicated. Soon after, researchers determined specific amounts of vitamins needed to avoid diseases of deficiency.

In 1912, biochemist Casimir Funk was the first to coin the term "vitamin" in a research publication that was accepted by the medical community, derived from "vita" meaning life, and "amine" referring to a nitrogenous substance essential for life. [3] Funk is considered the father of vitamin therapy, as he identified nutritional components that were missing in diseases of deficiency like scurvy (too little vitamin C), beri-beri (too little vitamin Bl), pellagra (too little vitamin B3), and rickets (too little vitamin D). The discovery of all vitamins occurred by 1948.

Vitamins were obtained only from food until the 1930s when commercially made supplements of certain vitamins became available. The U.S government also began fortifying foods with specific nutrients to prevent deficiencies common at the time, such as adding iodine to salt to prevent goiter, and adding folic acid to grain products to reduce birth defects during pregnancy. In the 1950s, most vitamins and multivitamins were available for sale to the general public to prevent deficiencies, some receiving a good amount of marketing in popular magazines such as promoting cod liver oil containing vitamin D as bottled sunshine. 

Indian Rebellion of 1857 | East India Company's expansion in India

The Indian Rebellion of 1857 was a major uprising in India in 1857—58 against the rule of the British East India Company, which functioned as a sovereign power on behalf of the British Crown. The rebellion began on 10 May 1857 in the form of a mutiny of sepoys of the company's army in the garrison town of Meerut, 40 miles (64 km) northeast of Delhi. It then erupted into other mutinies and civilian rebellions chiefly in the upper Gangetic plain and central India though incidents of revolt also occurred farther north and east. The rebellion posed a military threat to British power in that region, and was contained only with the rebels' defeat in Gwalior on 20 June 1858. On 1 November 1858, the British granted amnesty to all rebels not involved in murder, though they did not declare the hostilities to have formally ended until 8 July 1859.

The name of the revolt is contested, and it is variously described as the Sepoy Mutiny, the Indian Mutiny, the Great Rebellion, the Revolt of 1857, the Indian Insurrection, and the First War of Independence.

The Indian rebellion was fed by resentments born of diverse perceptions, including invasive British-style social reforms, harsh land taxes, summary treatment of some rich landowners and princes,and scepticism about  British claims that their rule offered material improvement to the Indian economy. Many Indians rose against the British; however, many also fought for the British, and the majority remained seemingly compliant to British Violence, which sometimes betrayed exceptional cruelty, was inflicted on both sides: on British officers and  civilians, including women and children, by the rebels, and on the rebels and their supporters, including sometimes entire villages, by British reprisals; the cities of Delhi and Lucknow were laid waste in the fighting and the British retaliation.

After the outbreak of the mutiny in Meerut, the rebels quickly reached Delhi, whose 81 -year-old Mughal ruler, Bahadur Shah Zafar, was declared the Emperor of Hindustan. Soon, the rebels had captured large tracts of the North-Western Provinces and Awadh (Oudh). The East India Company's response came rapidly as well. With help from reinforcements, Kanpur was retaken by mid-July 1857, and Delhi by the end of September. However, it then took the remainder of 1857 and the better part of 1858 for the rebellion to be suppressed in Jhansi, Lucknow, and especially the Awadh countryside. Other regions of Company-controlled India—Bengal province, the Bombay Presidency, In the Punjab, and the Madras Presidency—remained largely calm. In the Punjab, the Sikh princes crucially helped the British by providing both soldiers and support. The large princely states, Hyderabad, Mysore, Travancore, and Kashmir, as well as the smaller ones of Rajputana, did not join the rebellion, serving the British, in the Governor-General Lord Canning's words, as "breakwaters in a storm".

In some regions, most notably in Awadh, the rebellion took on the attributes of a patriotic revolt against British oppression. However, the rebel leaders proclaimed no articles of faith that presaged a new political system. Even so, the rebellion proved to be an important watershed in Indian and British Empire history. It led to the dissolution of the East India Company, and forced the British to reorganize the army, the financial system, and the administration in India, through passage of the Government of India Act 1858. India was thereafter administered directly by the British government in the new British Raj. On 1 November 1858, Queen Victoria issued a proclamation to Indians, which while lacking the authority of a constitutional provision, promised rights similar to those of other British subjects.  In the following decades, when admission to these rights was not always forthcoming, Indians were to pointedly refer to the Queen's proclamation in growing avowals of a new nationaalism.

East India Company's expansion in India –

Although the British East India Company had established a presence in India as far back as 1612, and earlier administered the factory areas established for trading purposes, its victory in the Battle of Plassey in 1757 marked the beginning of its firm foothold in eastern India. The victory was consolidated in 1764 at the Battle of Buxar, when the East India Company army defeated Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II. After his defeat, the emperor granted the company the right to the "collection of Revenue" in the provinces of Bengal (modern day Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha), known as "Diwani" to the company. The Company soon expanded its territories around its bases in Bombay and Madras; later, the Anglo-Mysore Wars (1766—1799) and the Anglo Maratha Wars (1772—1818) led to control of even more of India.

In 1806, the Vellore Mutiny was sparked by new uniform regulations that created resentment amongst both Hindu and Muslim sepoys.

After the turn of the 19th century, Governor-General Wellesley began what became two decades of accelerated expansion of Company territories. This was achieved either by subsidiary alliances between the company and local rulers or by direct military annexation. The subsidiary alliances created the princely states of the Hindu maharajas and the Muslim nawabs. Punjab, North-West Frontier Province, and Kashmir were annexed after the Second Anglo-Sikh War in 1849; however, Kashmir was immediately sold under the 1846 Treaty of Amritsar to the Dogra Dynasty of Jammu and thereby became a princely state. The border dispute between Nepal and British India, which sharpened after 1801 , had caused the Anglo-Nepalese War of 1814—16 and brought the defeated Gurkhas under British influence. In 1854, Berar was annexed, and the state of Oudh was added two years later. For practical purposes, the company was the government of much of India. 

History of Indian Arts | Indian Traditions of Visual Arts

What is Art?

It is a natural human instinct to want to share his experience, wisdom, and emotions. When that instinct results in a beautiful creation, it is acknowledged as 'Art'. The artist's power of imagination, sensibility, state of emotion, and his skills are the crucial factors at the root of artistic creation.

Visual Arts and Performing Arts:

Artistic creations are of two types, 'Visual Arts' and 'Performing Arts'. The Sanskrit term for the first type is Drik Kala and for the second type, Lalit or Aangik Kala. Many examples of Prehistoric rock art have been discovered at many sites in the world. It proves that the origin of visual arts is as old as the stone-age man.

Folk Arts and Classical Arts:

There are two distinct traditions of art, 'Folk Art' and 'Classical Art'. Folk art is a tradition that has continued from prehistoric times. The expression of folk art is a natural part of people's way of living. Hence its expression is spontaneous. Folk art is created by collective participation of the members of a social group. Classical art, on the other hand, is expressed within an established frame of consistent rules. It needs prolonged training to master any form of classical art.

Style in Art:

Artists tend to have their own methods of working. It is known as the style of the artist. When a style is adopted by many artists over a prolonged period of time, it may become a tradition. Such tradition gets established as an 'art style'. Various art styles develop in every culture, which are characteristic of a certain period and region. Such styles are helpful in studying art history.

Indian Traditions of Visual Arts (Drik Kala)

Maratha Style of Painting:

Maratha painting is an example of an art style. The style known as Maratha paintings began to develop in the latter half of the 17th century C.E. This style consists of coloured paintings and they occur as murals and also miniatures used in manuscripts. Murals of Maratha style can be seen in the old wadas at places like Wai, Menavali, and Satara in Maharashtra. The Maratha style was influenced by the Rajput and European styles of painting. Painting styles help us understand various things about the times in which it was developed such as the lifestyle, attires, customs, etc.

Art of Painting:

Paintings are two-dimensional, for example, sketches or paintings of nature, objects, and individuals. They are done on various surfaces, such as rocks, walls, papers, canvas of different types, and earthen pots. The mural of Bodhisattva at Ajanta Caves is one of the finest examples of the art of painting.

Folk Styles of Paintings:

Rock paintings dating to the Stone Age have been discovered in many countries. In India, there are rock painting sites in the states of Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Uttarakhand, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana. The rock paintings in the caves at Bhimbetka are famous. Bhimbetka is a World Heritage site. Rock paintings usually depict human, animal, and geometric figures.

However, the style of rock paintings seems to be changing according to the cultural changes from the Stone Ages to the beginning of agriculture. The change is visible in the depiction of flora and fauna or it may be evident in the style of portraying various figures and also in the colours that were used. Black, red, and white colours were used in the rock paintings, which were made from natural substances. With the help of rock paintings, we can understand the knowledge of ancient people about their natural surroundings and also the way they exploited available natural resources. The tradition of folk style of paintings closely resembles the style of rock paintings. Customs such as decorating the house walls and courtyards (Rangawali) by drawing various figures and symbols or using panels of paintings to narrate stories helped to develop regional styles of folk paintings.

The traditions of Warli painting and Pingul or Chitra Katha in Maharashtra are among the finest examples of folk-style of paintings. Jivya Somya Mashe, the artist in Thane district has played a great role in making the Warli style of paintings very popular. He has been honored with a number of national and international awards for his paintings. In the year 201 1, he was awarded 'Padmashree'.

The tradition of Chitrakathi is mentioned in 'Manasollas', a book written by the Chalukya king Someshvara in the 12th century C.E. It confirms the antiquity of this tradition. The tradition of narrating stories from Ramayana or Mahabharata with the help of wooden puppets and paintings is known as, Chitrakathi or Pinguli tradition. The people who still practice the art of Pingul live in a village called Pinguli. They belong to the Thakar tribal community. It is located in the Konkan region, near Kudal. The Chitrakathi pictures are drawn on paper and painted in colours made from natural substances. It takes 30-50 pictures to complete the narration of a single story. These pictures are preserved very carefully and handed down from one generation to another. The artists and the government are trying to preserve the tradition, which is on the verge of extinction.

Classical Styles of Painting:

The ancient Indian texts have explained various aspects of art in great detail. There are altogether 64 arts mentioned in these texts. The art of painting is mentioned as alekhyam or alekhya vidya in these. It is said to have six main aspects (Shadange). The ancient Indian scholars studied these six aspects very minutely. They include Roopbheda (Different shapes and forms), Pramana (Proportionate depiction of various features of an image), Bhava (Expressions), Lavanyayojana (Aesthetics), Sadrushyata (A resemblance to reality), Varnikabhang (Colour composition). Agama texts of various religious sects, Puranas, and Vastushastra texts explain the arts of painting and sculpting in the context of temple architecture.

 

Gupta Empire Introduction, Achievements, Golden Age, Facts

Introduction of Gupta Empire –

Two significant political forces—the Kushanas and the Satavahanas in the north and south, respectively—rose to prominence as a result of the collapse of the Mauryan Empire. These two empires supported social harmony and economic development in their respective domains. Around 230 CE, the Kushan rule in north India came to an end, and the Murundas thereafter took control of most of central India (possible kinsmen of the Kushanas).

Murunda rule lasted for just 25 to 30 years. In the last decade of the third century CE, the Gupta dynasty became well-known (about 275 CE). The erstwhile lands ruled by the Satavahanas and Kushanas were mostly under the power of the Gupta Empire. The Guptas (perhaps Vaishyas) maintained political unity in northern India for more than a century (335 CE- 455 CE).

It is believed that the Guptas were Kushana feudators. Uttar Pradesh and Bihar made formed the Guptas' initial kingdom, which had Prayag as its capital (U.P). The Guptas established their dominance in the prosperous plains of Madhyadesha, also known as Anuganga (the middle Gangetic basin), Saketa (U.P. Ayodhya), Prayag (U.P.), and Magadha (mostly Bihar).

The Guptas took advantage of their closeness to regions in north India that engaged in silk trade with the Byzantine Empire as well as the iron ore riches in central India and south Bihar (eastern Roman Empire). The Gupta era in ancient India is referred to as the "Golden Age" because of the enormous advances made in the disciplines of the arts, literature, science, and technology. The political union of the continent was another outcome.

Founder of Gupta Empire

Chandragupta-I (319 CE - 330/335 CE) –

The dynasty's first significant king and regarded as its true founder was Chandragupta-I (319—330/335 CE). He took on the name "Maharajadhiraj." His rule extended to areas of Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand, and South Bihar (Saketa and Prayaga).

Beginning with his accession in around AD 319—320, the Gupta Samvat was established (era). Gold coins featuring the likenesses of Kumardevi and Chandragupta l, also known as Kumardevi Coins, were first struck after Chandragupta-I wed the Licchavi princess Kumardevi and expanded his power in the North Bihar region (Nepal).

Work of Gupta Empire Kings –

Mathematics

The notation using the decimal system was one of the significant developments. During this period, the place-value system reached its culmination. Zero was not represented by a symbol during the Gupta era. Aryabhatta, a mathematician, employed powers of 10 and null co-efficients to represent "zero."

Astronomy

Aryabhatta's hypothesis that the earth has a spherical shape rather than a flat one was one of the significant developments. The astronomers of the Gupta era introduced the concept of gravity. Aryabhatta also demonstrated that the planet consistently spins around its own axis. According to him, the earth's rotation caused the stars to move, which in turn caused the motion of the stars.

Medicine

Mercury and iron were used in medicine throughout the Gupta era. The use of these materials demonstrates that people living during the Gupta era were knowledgeable about chemistry and even engaged in its practice. The medical professionals at that time were aware of surgeries and could perform them if necessary.

Literature

The Gupta Dynasty was a peak period for literature. The literature of the Gupta dynasty was more concerned with human behaviour than with religious concepts. Sanskrit literature was particularly well-liked and supported by numerous kings of the Gupta Empire. Nine poets served in Chandragupta II's court. Kalidasa was the greatest poet among these nine. During the Gupta dynasty, Prakrit literature was also quite well-liked.

Education

The Gupta era saw a significant importance for education. The public could obtain a primary education. Staying in agraharas or monasteries was the way to obtain formal education and advanced education. In the fifth century, Kumaragupta I founded Nalanda University. The university was a significant hub for learning and one of the first to offer dormitories to students. One of the first institutions of higher learning in the world was the Takshila University.

Administrative System

The Empire was divided into distinct administrative regions, such as Rajya, Rashtra, Desha, and Mandala, among others. Thus, the decentralization of power was emphasized. The administrative division made it possible for the kings to systematically govern  their domains.

Judicial System

The Gupta Empire had a distinctive judicial system. The lowest level of the judicial hierarchy was the village assembly or trade guild. These councils were picked to serve as a mediator between the parties who came before them in disputes.

Art & Architecture

For all the major religious groups, the Gupta era is typically recognized as the classic pinnacle of North Indian art. Even though there are many surviving paintings, they are almost exclusively religious sculptures. During this time, the Buddha image, Jain tirthankara figures, and the distinctive, intricately carved stone deity in Hindu art all first appeared. 

Amazon Rainforest Animals | Where to spot them

 

The expansive Amazon Rainforest, renowned as Earth's largest and most biodiverse tropical rainforest, stretches across an area totaling 5.5 million square kilometers across nine nations. It extends through Brazil, Peru, Colombia, Ecuador and more. The Amazon's unrivaled natural diversity truly astounds, housing over 40,000 plant varieties, 1 ,300 bird types, 2,200 fish species, and an impressive 430 mammal kinds.

This blog will highlight 15 Amazon Rainforest Animals. On future trips to South America, watch for these fascinating beings. From the majestic big cats and vibrant parrots to the leisurely sloths and formidable serpents, the unique traits of these forest residents are sure to leave one in wonder.

JAGUAR –

The largest feline living in Central and South America is the jaguar, more significant than the mountain lion, and globally ranks third biggest, only beaten by tigers and African lions. These amazing animals have a coat of vivid orange covered in black rosettes, perfectly disguising them amid dense foliage. Jaguars are typically solitary animals known for their powerful bite and remarkable hunting abilities. Their natural homes include parts of Brazil, Peru, and Ecuador within the tropical rainforests.

CAPYBARA –

The capybara is the most impressive animal, weighing up to 66 kilograms, and is the largest rodent in the world. These social creatures often join groups together, numbering around 20 individuals. Capybaras are exceptionally skilled swimmers, able to remain below the water's surface for approximately five minutes - a trait allowing them to evade detection. Their native lands commonly involve the Amazon rainforest, with a sizable community in Brazil, Peru, and Colombia.

TOUCAN –

The toucan is a colorful avian known for its lengthy curved beak, extending to a remarkable span of up to twenty centimeters. These fowls employ their sizable beaks not solely to enter sustenance but also to control their body temperature. In contrast to widespread conception, toucans usually could be more expert fliers and often journey by hopping from department to department. They are prevalent throughout the Amazon rainforest, particularly in areas with fruit timber. Toucans are typically noticed in Brazil, Peru, Colombia, and Ecuador.

MACAW –

The macaw is a gorgeous avian with vibrant plumage and an expansive wingspan, sometimes reaching a meter across, rendering it one of the more recognizable denizens of the Amazonian rainforest. These fowls possess a riveting and vivid appearance together with intelligence, retaining the facility to mimic human utterances and other sounds. Macaws naturally exhibit a sociable character that forms enduring paired bonds. Commonly nesting high amidst the lush rainforest canopy, their loveliness appears set against lush vegetation at a remove.

ANACONDA –

The giant snake known as the anaconda is renowned as one of Earth's largest, reaching nearly 30 feet and weighing over 550 pounds. These formidable creatures are exceptional swimmers, capable of remaining submerged underwater for up to 10 minutes. They are typically found near sources of water, where they stealthily pursue their prey. The natural habitats of anacondas primarily include regions such as Brazil, Peru, and Colombia.

SLOTH –

Sloths are mammals known for their relaxed pace of life spent hanging upside down from tree limbs. These animals have a slow metabolism, allowing waste expulsion around once weekly. Sloths are usually nestled high among the treetops, often seen while resting. As solitary creatures, they favor a solitary life over social contact. They can regularly be spotted in nations such as Brazil and Peru.

GIANT RIVER OTTER –

The giant river otter is Earth's most prominent otter type, with someone reaching lengths up to 5.9 feet long. These beings are inherently communal and live in familial organizations, speaking amongst themselves through diverse vocal communications. These obscure otters inhabit the streams and watercourses of the Amazon. Their spread is mainly within nations like Brazil and Peru.

TAPIR –

The tapir, a sizable plant-eating mammal, is distinguished for its versatile upper lip, which it uses skillfully to gather flora. These creatures commonly live alone and are renowned for their remarkable sense of smell—the natural homes of tapirs spread across South American nations such as Brazil, Peru, and Colombia.

SPIDER MONKEY –

Spider monkeys, who belong to the genus Ateles, are graceful animals known for their lengthy limbs and prehensile tail, which they employ to cling to trees and swing across the foliage overhead. These creatures are sociable by their very nature and converse with one another through various sounds and body language. Spider monkeys call a vast region stretching from northern Mexico in the north to Bolivia in the south their home, and this region incorporates nations such as Brazil, Peru, Ecuador, and Colombia. Notably, seven living spider monkey types have unique traits and adaptations.

ANTEATER –

The anteater, a peculiar creature known for its appearance, mainly feeds on insects like ants and termites. They have an elongated snout and a long tongue that can reach up to 24 inches, permitting them to delve into insect burrows effortlessly. In nature, these animals are primarily solitary, preferring to roam and forage alone rather than in packs. Aardvarks have a widespread geographic distribution in Central and South America, encompassing nations including Brazil, Peru, and Colombia. Notably, four types of aardvarks exist, each with traits and adaptations.

HARPY EAGLE –

The harpy eagle, one of Earth's most formidable avian predators, can reach impressive heights of nearly 3 feet. This majestic raptor has a wingspan that may extend to over six and a half feet, granting it remarkable flight abilities. When airborne, harpy eagles can reach 50 miles per hour. These birds of prey inhabit various tropical rainforests across Central and South America, including Brazil, Peru, and Colombia. Notably, the harpy eagle sits at the top of local food chains with few natural adversaries, playing a vital role in maintaining balanced prey populations like monkey and sloth species.

ELECTRIC EEL –

Despite what its name may imply, the electric eel is not truly an eel but rather a knifefish species. This fascinating aquatic creature is renowned for its ability to generate powerful electrical bursts reaching up to 800 volts. These shocks are mainly utilized for hunting prey and self-protection, as they can stun wildlife and deter would-be predators. Electric eels can achieve lengths approaching 8 feet. They inhabit the neotropical freshwater ecosystems of South America, chiefly residing in the murky waters of the Amazon River and its many tributaries winding through countries such as Brazil, Peru, and Colombia.

POISON DART FROG –

The poison dart frog is a small, vibrantly-hued amphibian known for secreting toxins from its skin as a defense mechanism against predators. These frogs are native to Brazil, Peru, and Colombia.

GREEN IGUANA –

The green iguana is a large, tree-dwelling lizard that can grow up to 2 meters long. This herbivorous creature can alter its skin color for body temperature regulation. These prevalent reptiles inhabit the Amazon rainforest and are frequently spotted basking on rocks and logs. Their geographical distribution includes countries such as Brazil, Peru, and Colombia.

RED-BELLIED PIRANHA –

The red-bellied piranha is a carnivorous fish typically weighing up to 1.4 kilograms. They possess a formidable set of sharp teeth capable of crushing bones. Their geographical distribution includes countries such as Brazil, Peru, and Colombia.

History of flight | The invention of the airplane

In the history of flight, the most important landmarks and events include an understanding of the dynamic reaction of lifting surfaces (or wings), building absolutely reliable engines that produce sufficient power to propel an airframe, and solving the problem of flight control in three dimensions. At the start of the 20th century, the Wright brothers demonstrated that the basic technical problems associated with heavier-than-air flying machines had been overcome, and military and civil aviation developed quickly afterward.

This article tells the story of the invention of the airplane and the development of civil aviation from piston-engine airplanes to jets. For a history of military aviation, see military aircraft; for lighter-than-air flight, see airship. See airplane for a full treatment of the principles of aircraft flight and operations, aircraft configurations, and aircraft materials and construction.

The invention of the airplane –

On the evening of Sept. 18, 1901, Wilbur Wright, a 33-year-old businessman from Dayton, Ohio, addressed a distinguished group of Chicago engineers on the subject of "Some Aeronautical Experiments" that he had conducted with his brother Orville Wright over the previous two years. "The difficulties which obstruct the pathway to success in flying machine construction," he noted, "are of three general classes."

This clear analysis—the clearest possible statement of the problem of heavier-than-air flight—became the basis for the Wright brothers' work over the next half decade. What was known at that time in each of these three critical areas and what additional research was required are considered below.

Construction of the sustaining wings: the problem of lift –

The dream of human flight must have begun with observation of birds soaring through the sky. For millennia, however, progress was retarded by attempts to design aircraft that emulated the beating of a bird's wings. The generations of experimenters and dreamers who focused their attention on ornithopters—machines in which flapping wings generated both lift and propulsion—contributed nothing substantial to the final solution of the problems blocking the route to mechanical flight.

Thus, the story of the invention of the airplane begins in the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries, with the first serious research into aerodynamics—the study of the forces operating on a solid body (for instance, a wing when it is immersed in a stream of air). Leonardo da Vinci and Galileo Galilei in Italy, Christiaan Huygens in the Netherlands, and Isaac Newton in England all contributed to an understanding of the relationship between resistance (drag) and such factors as the surface area of an object exposed to the stream and the density of a fluid. Swiss mathematicians Daniel Bernoulli and Leonhard Euler and British engineer John Smeaton explained the relationship between pressure and velocity and provided information that enabled a later generation of engineers to calculate aerodynamic forces.

George Cayley, an English baronet, bridged the gap between physical theory, engineering research, and the age-old dream of flight. He gathered critical aerodynamic data of value in the design of winged aircraft, using instruments developed in the 18th century for research into ballistics. Cayley was also a pioneer of aircraft design, explaining that a successful flying machine would have separate systems for lift, propulsion, and control. While he did produce designs for ornithopters, he was the first experimenter to focus on fixed-wing aircraft.

Cayley found the secrets of lift in the shape of a bird's wing, surmising that an arched, or cambered, wing would produce greater lift than a flat wing because of lower pressure on top of the curved surface (see Bernoulli's theorem). His observations of birds in flight led him to recognize the superiority of relatively long and narrow (in modern terminology, high-aspect-ratio) wings for soaring. As a practical matter, however, he designed biplane and multiplane wings (the first of their kind) as a means of providing maximum surface area in a strong and easily braced structure.

Addressing the first meeting of the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain in 1866, Francis H. Wenham provided a concise and forceful restatement of Cayley's most important ideas regarding wings. Five years later, in cooperation with John Browning, Wenham built the first wind tunnel, a device that would have a profound effect on the study of wings and the development of improved airfoils. Horatio Phillips, a fellow member of the Aeronautical Society, developed an even more effective wind tunnel design, and he patented (1884) a two-surface, cambered-airfoil design that provided the foundation for most subsequent work in the field.

Beginning in the 1870s, Otto Lilienthal, a German mechanical engineer, undertook the most important studies of wing design since the time of Cayley. His detailed measurements of the forces operating on a cambered wing at various angles of attack provided precise bits of data employed by later experimenters—including, in the United States, the engineer Octave Chanute and the Wright brothers—to calculate the performance of their own wings. Having published the results of his research, Lilienthal designed, built, and flew a series of monoplane and biplane gliders, completing as many as 2,000 flights between 1890 and the time of his fatal glider crash in August 1896.

At the outset of their own aeronautical experiments, the Wright brothers carefully studied the work of their predecessors and decided that there was little need for them to focus on wing design. "Men already know how to construct wings...," Wilbur explained in 1901, "which when driven through the air at sufficient speed will not only sustain themselves but also that of the engine, and of the engineer as well."

Two years of experimenting with gliders, however, demonstrated the need to pay considerably more attention to wing design. Beginning in November 1901, the Wright brothers used a wind tunnel of their own design to gather information that enabled them to calculate the values of lift and drag for an entire series of airfoils at various angles of attack and to measure the performance of wings with differing aspect ratios, tip shapes, and other design features. That information culminated in the Wright glider of 1902, a breakthrough machine whose wing design enabled the Wright brothers to take the final steps to the invention of the airplane.

 

Development of Railways in India | Factors Responsible for the Development of Railways in India

The British Government's deliberate and planned construction of railways developed the Indian Railways. Read to understand the development of railways in India.

The Indian railway system seems to be the nation's principal route for interior transportation. Railways are practically the country's lifeline. It provides the country's large-scale cargo and passenger traffic transportation demands, contributing to economic growth and encouraging national cohesion. Hence, they become the foundation of India's physical transportation system. So, the development of railways in India was the primary preference for the nation.

The Indian Railways Development - An Overview

In April 1853, India's first railway network was inaugurated for the public to travel between Mumbai and Thane. Then, the route stretched to Kalyan in 1854. Also, in 1856, it extended to Khopoli. Finally, in June 1858, the Khandala-Pune segment was completed and opened. Simultaneously, railway lines built in the first portion of the nation's eastern side ran from Howrah to Hugli, covering 37 kilometers. It became operational in 1854. In 1854, the Haora-Hugli part stretched to Pundooah, and in 1855, it extended to Raniganj Coal Mines. The nation's southern section got its first 105-kilometer railway line the following year. Meanwhile, the Haora-Khana-Rajmahal portion of the railway was completed in 1860. Following this, the route from Kanpur to Allahabad was inaugurated in 1859.

In 1861, the railway stretched westward to Kadalundi. After that, in 1862, Mughal Sarai was also depicted on an Indian railway plan. The Kanpur-Etawah segment was inaugurated to trade in 1860, and all bottlenecks between Howrah and Delhi were repaired between 1862 and 1866.

Finally, the operation of the all-rail connection between Kolkata and Mumbai began in 1870. The railway route between Mughal Sarai and Lahore was completed in the following year, establishing the Mumbai-Chennai railway route.

Consequently, most of our nation's major cities were interconnected by rail from 1853 to 1871. The overall route kilometrage in 1870 remained 7,680 kilometers, increased to 39,834 kilometers at the beginning of the century and 66,234 kilometers by 1940.

As of 1947, Indian Railways had a total length of 65,217 kilometers, of which 10,523 kilometers were in Pakistan, leaving India with 54,694 kilometers.

India holds the second-biggest rail infrastructure position in Asia and the fourth-largest on the planet. However, India is the world's leading country regarding passengers per kilometer generated.

What are the Factors Responsible for the Development of Railways in India?

Geographical, economic, and political interests are responsible for developing railways in India. Consequently, they have shaped the layout of India's railway system.

Geographic Factor –

The North Indian flat, with its level ground, dense population, and abundant farmland, helped in railway growth. However, the existence of many rivers demanded the bridge's construction, which was costly.

In Bihar and Assam, there are perhaps no railroads in the flood-prone areas of several rivers. Moreover, Southern India's plateau region isn't as well-suited to railroads as the North Plain location.

The rough Himalayan area in the north makes the zone empty of railways. However, the railroad terminals have got foothills as their house. There are several low gauge railroads in the region. A slightly elevated railroad link is proposed between Jammu and the Kashmir valley. However, Rajasthan's sandy plains are also unsuitable for railway construction.

There was no railroad between Jaisalmer and Jodhpur until 1966. Railways, understandably, want to take the easy route.

Economic Factor –

Railways seem to be more developed in financially privileged places, where there is a necessity for a train network due to commercial activities. On the other hand, Railways offer economic success to their destinations.

Due to economic ties, the saturation point of railways may be found around major rural and commercial centers, including areas with abundant mineral and farming methods.

Political Factor –

The current Indian rail network is a relic of British colonialism. The British administration designed the structure of rail tracks along with paths to use India's precious resources for the advantage of their businesses and overwhelm our national markets with finished British goods. Rail tracks interconnected many ports to promote international trade.

Railways and Economic Growth Relationship –

While talking about railways and economic growth, they have a direct relationship. Railways are the most common means of cargo and passenger mobility. It connects the nation's economic life since Indian railways transport various products, including mineral ores, fertilizers, petrochemicals, agricultural commodities, iron, and steel.

Railways transport everything over great distances in a timely and cost-effective manner. It boasts well-functioning rail transportation, signaling, and communication infrastructure. It is also the economic lifeblood of India, since many travelers utilize it daily, and the Indian Government receives a significant amount of revenue from railroads.

Conclusion –

The Indian railway system seems to be the nation's principal route for interior transportation. Railways are the foundation of India's physical transportation system. So, the development of railways in India was the primary preference for the nation. Geographical, economic, and political interests are responsible for developing railways in India. Railways and economic growth have a direct relationship. Railways are the most common means of cargo and passenger mobility. 

Global Warming | Causes of Global Warming | Natural Causes of Global Warming

"Global warming is a gradual increase in the earth's temperature generally due to the greenhouse effect caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide,CFCs, and other pollutants. "

What is Global Warming?

Global warming is the phenomenon of a gradual increase in the temperature near the earth's surface. This phenomenon has been observed over the past one or two centuries. This change has disturbed the climatic pattern of the earth. However, the concept of global warming is quite controversial but the scientists have provided relevant data in support of the fact that the temperature of the earth is rising constantly. There are several causes of global warming, which have a negative effect on humans, plants and animals. These causes may be natural or might be the outcome of human activities. In order to curb the issues, it is very important to understand the negative impacts of global warming.

Let us have a detailed study of global warming, its causes and its effects.

Causes of Global Warming –

Following are the major causes of global warming:

Man-made Causes of Global Warming –

Deforestation

Plants are the main source of oxygen. They take in carbon dioxide and release oxygen thereby maintaining environmental balance. Forests are being depleted for many domestic and commercial purposes. This has led to an environmental imbalance, thereby giving rise to global warming.

Use of Vehicles

The use of vehicles, even for a very short distance results in various gaseous emissions. Vehicles burn fossil fuels which emit a large amount of carbon dioxide and other toxins into the atmosphere resulting in a temperature increase.

Chlorofluorocarbon

With the excessive use of air conditioners and refrigerators, humans have been adding CFCs into the environment which affects the atmospheric ozone layer. The ozone layer protects the earth surface from the harmful ultraviolet rays emitted by the sun. The CFCs have led to ozone layer depletion making way for the ultraviolet rays, thereby increasing the temperature of the earth.

Industrial Development

With the advent of industrialization, the temperature of the earth has been increasing rapidly. The harmful emissions from the factories add to the increasing temperature of the earth. In 2013, the Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change reported that the increase in the global temperature between 1880 and 2012 has been 0.9 degrees Celsius. The increase is 1.1 degrees Celsius when compared to the pre-industrial mean temperature.

Agriculture

Various farming activities produce carbon dioxide and methane gas. These add to the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and increase the temperature of the earth.

Overpopulation

An increase in population means more people breathing. This leads to an increase in the level of carbon dioxide, the primary gas causing global warming, in the atmosphere.

Natural Causes of Global Warming

Volcanoes

Volcanoes are one of the largest natural contributors to global warming. The ash and smoke emitted during volcanic eruptions goes out into the atmosphere and affects the climate.

Water Vapour

Water vapour is a kind of greenhouse gas. Due to the increase in the earth's temperature, more water gets evaporated from the water bodies and stays in the atmosphere adding to global warming.

Melting Permafrost

Permafrost is frozen soil that has environmental gases trapped in it for several years and is present below Earth's surface. It is present in glaciers. As the permafrost melts, it releases the gases back into the atmosphere, increasing Earth's temperature.

Forest Blazes

Forest blazes or forest fires emit a large amount of carbon-containing smoke. These gases are released into the atmosphere and increase the earth's temperature resulting in global warming.

Effects of Global Warming

Following are the major effects of global warming:

Rise in Temperature

Global warming has led to an incredible increase in earth's temperature. Since 1880, the earth's temperature has increased by -1 degrees. This has resulted in an increase in the melting of glaciers, which have led to an increase in the sea level. This could have devastating effects on coastal regions.

Threats to the Ecosystem

Global warming has affected the coral reefs that can lead to the loss of plant and animal lives. Increase in global temperatures has made the fragility of coral reefs even worse.

Climate Change

Global warming has led to a change in climatic conditions. There are droughts at some places and floods at some. This climatic imbalance is the result of global warming.

Spread of Diseases

Global warming leads to a change in the patterns of heat and humidity. This has led to the movement of mosquitoes that carry and spread diseases.

High Mortality Rates

Due to an increase in floods, tsunamis and other natural calamities, the average death toll usually increases. Also, such events can bring about the spread of diseases that can hamper human life.

Loss of Natural Habitat

A global shift in the climate leads to the loss of habitats of several plants and animals. In this case, the animals need to migrate from their natural habitat and many of them even become extinct. This is yet another major impact of global warming on biodiversity.