Neil Armstrong Early life and career | Neil Armstrong Moon landing | Timeline of the Apollo program

Neil Armstrong (born August 5, 1930, Wapakoneta, Ohio, U.S.—died August 25, 2012, Cincinnati, Ohio) was a U.S. astronaut, and the first person to set foot on the Moon.

Early life and career –

Neil Armstrong was the eldest of three children born to Viola Louise Engel and Stephen Koenig Armstrong, a state auditor. Neil's passion for aviation and flight was kindled when he took his first airplane ride at age 6. He was active in the Boy Scouts of America and earned the rank of Eagle Scout, the highest rank attainable. He became a licensed pilot on his 16th birthday and a naval air cadet in 1947. His studies in aeronautical engineering at Purdue University_ in West Lafayette, Indiana, were interrupted in 1950 by his service in the Korean War, during which he was shot down once and was awarded three Air Medals. He completed his degree in 1955 and immediately became a civilian research pilot for the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), later the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). He flew more than 1,100 hours, testing various supersonic fighters as well as the X-15 rocket plane.

In 1962 Armstrong joined the space program with its second group of astronauts. On March 16, 1966, Armstrong, as command pilot of Gemini 8, and David R. Scott rendezvoused with an unmanned Agena rocket and completed the first manual space docking maneuver. After the docking, a rocket thruster malfunction sent the spacecraft into an uncontrolled spin and forced them to separate from the Agena. Armstrong then regained control of the Gemini craft and made an emergency splashdown in the Pacific Ocean.

Moon landing –

On July 16, 1969, Armstrong, along with Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr., and Michael Collins, blasted off in the Apollo 11 vehicle toward the Moon (see Apollo program). Four days later, at 4:17 PM U.S. Eastern Daylight Time (EDT), the Eagle lunar landing module, guided manually by Armstrong, touched down on a plain near the southwestern edge of the Sea of Tranquility (Mare Tranquillitatis). At 10:56 PM EDT on July 20, 1969, Armstrong stepped from the Eagle onto the Moon's dusty surface with the words, "That's one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind." (In the excitement of the moment, Armstrong skipped the "a" in the statement that he had prepared.) Armstrong and Aldrin left the module for more than two hours and deployed scientific instruments, collected surface samples, and took numerous photographs.

On July 21, after 21 hours and 36 minutes on the Moon, they lifted off to rendezvous with Collins and begin the voyage back to Earth. After splashdown in the Pacific at 12:51 PM EDT on July 24, the three astronauts spent 18 days in quarantine to guard against possible contamination by lunar microbes. During the days that followed, and during a tour of 21 nations, they were hailed for their part in the opening of a new era in human exploration of the universe.

Timeline of the Apollo program –

Between 1968 and 1972, 24 Apollo astronauts visited the Moon, and 12 of them walked on its surface. Scroll through the timeline of the Apollo missions that led the United States to land the first humans on the Moon, and see how Armstrong fits into this storied history.

Later career –

Armstrong resigned from NASA in 1971. After Apollo 11 he shied away from being a public figure and confined himself to academic and professional endeavors. From 1971 to 1979 he was professor of aerospace engineering at the University of Cincinnati (Ohio). After 1979 Armstrong served as chairman or director for a number of companies, among them Computing Technologies for Aviation from 1982 to 1992 and AIL Systems (later EDO Corporation), a maker of electronic equipment for the military, from 1977 until his retirement in 2002. He also served on the National Commission on Space (NCOS), a panel charged with setting goals for the space program, and on the Presidential Commission on the Space Shuttle Challenger Accident, the group appointed in 1986 to analyze the safety failures in the Challenger disaster. He was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1969, the Congressional Space Medal of Honor in 1978, and the Congressional Gold Medal in 2009.

Apollo 11

United States spaceflight –

Apollo 11, U.S. spaceflight during which commander Neil Armstrong and lunar module pilot Edwin ("Buzz") Aldrin, Jb, on July 20, 1969, became the first people to land on the Moon and walk the lunar surface. Apollo 11 was the culmination of the Apollo ugram and a massive national commitment by the United States to beat the Soviet Union in putting people on the Moon. All told, 24 Apollo astronauts visited the Moon and 12 of them walked on its surface. Additional NASA astronauts are scheduled to return to the Moon by 2025 as part of the Artemis space program.

From the time of its launch on July 16, 1969, until the return splashdown on July 24, almost every major aspect of the flight of Apollo 11 was witnessed via television by hundreds of millions of people in nearly every part of the globe. The pulse of humanity rose with the giant, Ill-metre- (363-foot-) high, 3,038,500-kg (6,698,700-pound) Saturn V launch vehicle as it made its flawless flight from Pad 39A at Cape Kennedy (now Cape Canaveral), Florida, before hundreds of thousands of spectators. So accurate was the translunar insertion that three of the en route trajectory corrections planned were not necessary. Aboard Apollo 11 were Armstrong, Aldrin, and command module pilot Michael Collins. Their enthusiasm was evident from the beginning, as Armstrong exclaimed, "This Saturn gave us a magnificent ride....lt was beautiful! "

The third stage of the Saturn then fired to start the crew on their 376,400-km (234,000-mile) journey to the Moon. The three astronauts conducted their transposition and docking maneuvers, first turning the command module, Columbia, and its attached service module around and then extracting the lunar module from its resting place above the Saturn's third stage. On their arrival the astronauts slowed the spacecraft so that it would go into lunar orbit. Apollo 11 entered first an elliptical orbit 114 by 313 km (71 by 194 miles) and then a nearly circular orbit between 100 and 122 km (62 and 76 miles) above the surface of the Moon.

On the morning of July 20, Armstrong and Aldrin crawled from the command module through an interconnecting tunnel into the lunar module, Eagle. Toward the end of the 12th lunar orbit, the Apollo 11 spacecraft became two separate spacecraft: Columbia, piloted by Collins, and Eagle, occupied by Armstrong and Aldrin.

By firing Eagle's propulsion system, the two astronauts changed from their nearly circular orbit to an elliptical course whose closest approach to the Moon was only 15,000 metres (50,000 feet). At this low point they again fired their engine, this time to undergo the powered descent initiation maneuver. Five times during the descent, the guidance computer triggered an alarm (called "1202" or "1201") that its memory was full, but NASA simulations before the mission showed that a landing could still happen despite the alarm, and thus Mission Control told the astronauts to continue the descent. At about 150 metres (500 feet) above the surface, Armstrong began maneuvering the craft manually (although the main engine continued under automatic control) to avoid landing in a rock-strewn crater.

For about a minute and a half, Armstrong hovered Eagle, moving it laterally with the reaction control system until he found a clear area on which to descend. Then the contact light went on inside the cockpit, as the 172-cm (68-inch) probes dangling below Eagle's footpads signaled contact with the ground. One second later the descent rocket engine was cut off, as the astronauts gazed down onto a sheet of lunar soil blown radially in all directions. Armstrong then radioed at 4:17 PM U.S. Eastern Daylight Time (EDT), "Houston, Tranquility Base here. The Eagle has landed." Eagle had touched down in the Sea of Tranquility_, an area selected for its level and smooth terrain.

At 10:56 PM EDT on July 20, Armstrong stepped out onto the lunar soil with the words, "That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind." (In the excitement of the moment, Armstrong skipped the "a" in the statement that he had prepared.) He immediately described the surface as "fine and powdery" and said that there was no difficulty moving about. Aldrin joined his companion about 20 minutes later. 

Partition of India

partition of India, division of British India into the independent countries of India and Pakistan according to the Indian Independence Act passed by the British Parliament on July 18, 1947. Set to take effect on August 15, the rapid partition led to a population transfer of unprecedented magnitude, accompanied by devastating communal violence, as some 15,000,000 Hindus, Sikhs, and Muslims rushed to cross the hastily demarcated borders before the partition would be complete. Estimates of the number of people who died during the partition range from 200,000 to 2,000,000. The partition left an indelible mark on the national consciousness of India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, and its lega€y continues to influence the countries' citizens to this day.

Background: British raj, Indian independence movement, and Muslim separatism –

Direct British rule of India began in 1858 as a consequence of the Indian Mutiny_, a rebellion against the paramountcy of the East India Company. Direct rule was intended to increase Indian representation while preserving British imperial interests, but continued aggravations and injustices in the following decades created an increasingly adamant independence movement. By the 1920s, programs of noncooperation and civil disobedience were placing pressure on the British to grant India self-governance; in 1930 the Indian National Congress (Congress Party), led by Jawaharlal Nehru, premulgated the Purna Swaraj resolution calling for complete independence.

By 1930 a number of Indian Muslims had begun to think in terms of statehood for their minority community separate from a state with a Hindu majority, although many of the most important leaders of the Muslim community, such as Mohammed Ali Jinnah and the Aga Khan III, continued to envisage a single federation of all Indian provinces. Jinnah, the secular leader of the All India Muslim League, hoped that the leadership of the Congress Party would accommodate Muslims' concerns of a Hindu bias in its high command. By documenting as many incidents as it could gather in reports published during 1939, the league hoped to demonstrate how Congress ministries were insensitive to Muslim demands or appeals for jobs, as well as to their redress of grievances, and had shown partiality toward the Hindu majority.

The divide intensified after the viceroy Lord Linlithgmy (governed 1936—43) informed India's political leaders and populace that they were at war with Germany_ and Hindu and Muslim leaders split on whether to support the war effort. The first meeting of the Muslim League after the outbreak of World War II was held in March 1940 in Punjab's ancient capital of Lahore. The famous Lahore Resolution, later known as the Pakistan Resolution, was passed by the largest gathering of league delegates just one day after Jinnah informed his followers that "the problem of India is not of an inter-communal but manifestly of an international character." The league resolved, therefore, that any future constitutional plan proposed by the British for India would not be "acceptable to the Muslims" unless it was so designed that the Muslim-majority "areas" of India's "North-Western and Eastern Zones" were "grouped to constitute 'independent States' in which the constituent units shall be autonomous and sovereign." The rifts deepened further when the Congress Party launched the Quit India movement in 1942 to call for immediate independence and British withdrawal; the Muslim League opposed the call because immediate independence would preclude autonomy for Muslims.

After World War II ended, demands for independence were louder than ever, and the 1945 British parliamentary victory of Clement Attlee, who pledged to grant India independence, lent greater certainty to British withdrawal from the subcontinent. With the stakes rising, the simmering Hindu-Muslim tensions erupted. Jinnah called for a "direct action day" on August 16, 1946, which spiraled into communal rioting that left thousands dead in what was later remembered as the "Great Calcutta Killing." The event was met soon after with reprisals in a deeply divided Bengal, and the cycle of violence later spread to other provinces.

Partition: planning, implementation, and outcome –

In March 1947 Louis Mountbatten arrived in India as its last viceroy of the British Empire. He had instructions to oversee the decolonization of the country—ideally, the devolution of power to an Indian government that would include the whole subcontinent—and wide freedom of action to end the British raj on whatever terms he deemed wisest. Mountbatten soon became convinced that the differences between the Muslim League and the Congress Party were irreconcilable in the near term, that speed was of the essence because of the real risks of mutiny among Indian troops or the outbreak of civil war, and that a partition was the only expedient option for independence. Mountbatten's plan for the partition of India was announced on June 3, 1947.

Britain's Parliament passed the Indian Independence Act on July 18, 1947. It ordered that the dominions of India and Pakistan be demarcated by midnight of August 14-15, 1947, and that the assets of the world's largest empire which had been integrated in countless ways for more than a century be divided within a single month. Racing the deadline, the Boundary Commission, appointed by Mountbatten, worked desperately to partition Punjab and Bengal in such a way as to leave the maximum practical number of Muslims to the west of the former's new boundary and to the east of the latter's. It consisted of four members from the Congress Party and four from the Muslim League and was chaired by Cyril Radcliffe who had never before been to India. With little agreement between the parties and the deadline looming, Radcliffe made the final determination of the borders, which satisfied no one and infuriated everyone.

 

Osama bin Laden and his Attacks

Bin Laden's Extremist Roots -

Born in 1957 in Saudi Arabia, bin Laden was the son of a wealthy Saudi businessman. Following the Soviet Union's invasion of Afghanistan in late 1979, bin Laden began providing financial and logistical support to the Islamic fighters battling the Soviets. In 1988, after Soviet forces were defeated and withdrew from Afghanistan, bin Laden founded an organization called al Qaeda, or "the Base," to continue the cause of jihad (holy war) through violence and aggression. Al Qaeda soon began raising money, setting up training camps, and providing military and intelligence instruction in such areas as Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Sudan. Under bin Laden's direction, al Qaeda started launching attacks and bombings in various nations to further its violent aims. During this time, bin Laden was becoming increasingly hostile to the United States. In particular, he opposed the U.S. military presence in Saudi Arabia and Somalia and sought to drive our nation's personnel out of these areas by force. After centering his operations in Sudan in the early 1990s, bin Laden began formulating plans to attack the West with an evolving, deadly new brand of jihad. Bin Laden and other members of al Qaeda also began issuing fatwas—rulings on Islamic law—indicating that attacks on the U.S. and its citizens were both proper and necessary. Bin Laden later openly declared war on the United States.

Initial Attack on U.S. Soil –

On February 26, 1993, Ramzi Yousef—a young extremist who had trained in one of bin Laden's camps—led the first major Middle Eastern terrorist attack on American soil by planting a truck bomb beneath the World Trade Center. The plan to topple both towers failed, but six people were killed and more than a thousand were injured. Following the connections, investigators soon uncovered and foiled a second terrorist plot to bomb a series of New York landmarks. The FBI also learned that Yousef was planning more attacks—including the simultaneous bombing of a dozen U.S. international flights—in concert with his uncle, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, who later joined al Qaeda. Ultimately, Yousef was captured and multiple terrorist operatives were arrested and imprisoned for the World Trade Center bombing, deepening bin Laden's disdain for America. In approximately 1996, bin Laden and his supporters returned to Afghanistan, where an alliance with the Taliban government provided a secluded safe haven for al Qaeda to train recruits and plan attacks.

East African Bombings and Indictment –

One of terrorist organization's major plots came to deadly fruition on August 7, 1998, when al Qaeda operatives bombed U.S. embassies in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania and Nairobi, Kenya. The near simultaneous attacks killed more than 200 American, Kenyan, and Tanzanian citizens and wounded another 4,500 people. These attacks were directly linked to bin Laden, who was indicted for his role in the bombings on November 4, 1998, and again in June 1999. The charges included the murder of U.S. nationals outside the United States, conspiracy to murder U.S. nationals outside the United States, and attacks on a federal facility resulting in death. A number of top al Qaeda operatives were ultimately captured and convicted for their roles in the bombings. The attacks led to ramped up anti-terror efforts by the U.S. and the FBI, which created its first Counterterrorism Division in 1999, consolidating its many anti-terrorism efforts and capabilities. On June 7, 1999, the FBI placed Osama bin Laden on its Ten Most Wanted Fugitives list, citing his connection to the 1998 attacks in East Africa.

As a new century dawned, al Qaeda continued its violent attacks. Some major plots failed, including a scheme to bomb the Los Angeles airport on the eve of millennial celebrations.

On October 12, 2000, however, terrorist operatives set off a small boat filled with explosives next to the USS Cole during its fuel stop in Yemen. The attack killed 17 Navy sailors, injured nearly 40 other crew members, and severely damaged the ship.

The Attacks of 9/11 –

Meanwhile, bin Laden and al Qaeda were plotting to attack America in a more direct and deadly way.

On September 11, 2001 , terrorists hijacked four airliners in the eastern United States. They flew three of the planes into buildings: the twin towers of the World Trade Center in New York and the Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia. They crashed the fourth plane in a field in rural Pennsylvania after passengers heroically rebelled. The horrific attacks killed nearly 3,000 people and injured thousands more.

The FBI and its partners quickly learned that the 9/11 attacks were carried out by bin Laden's terrorist organization. The 19 men who hijacked and crashed the four planes were all trained by al Qaeda, and bin Laden eventually admitted to his role in orchestrating the attacks.

The ensuing 9/11 investigation was the most massive in the history of the Bureau. The attacks led to far-reaching changes in the FBI, which made prevention of terrorist strikes its overriding priority and deliberately set out to be more predictive and intelligence-driven in addressing all major national security and criminal threats.

On October 10, 2001, Osama bin Laden was added to the newly-launched Most Wanted Terrorists List. The U.S. and other nations joined military operations in Afghanistan to find him and other al Qaeda terrorists, but bin Laden managed to elude capture.

In August 2010, U.S. intelligence agencies developed information that Osama bin Laden was likely living in a compound in northern Pakistan. On May 2, 2011 , under orders from President Obama, a special operations unit raided the compound and killed bin Laden.

In announcing the successful operation, President Obama said, "Bin Laden was not a Muslim leader; he was a mass murderer of Muslims. Indeed, al Qaeda has slaughtered scores of Muslims in many countries, including our own. So his demise should be welcomed by all who believe in peace and dignity."

 

Discovery of India

The Discovery of India was written by the Indian freedom fighter Jawaharlal Nehru (later India's first Prime Minister) during his incarceration in 1942—1945 at Ahmednagar Fort in present-day Indian state of Maharashtra by British colonial authorities before the independence of India. The book was written in 1944 but published in 1946. The book was published in India.

Synopsis –

The journey in The Discovery of India begins from ancient history, leading up to the last years of the British Raj. Nehru uses his knowledge of the Upanishads, Vedas, and textbooks on ancient history to introduce to the reader the development of India from the Indus Valley civilization, through the changes in socio-political scenario every foreign invader brought, to the present day conditions. Nehru was jailed for his participation in the Quit India Movement along with other Indian leaders, and he used this time to write down his thoughts and knowledge about India's history. The book provides a broad view of Indian history, philosophy, and culture as viewed from the eyes of an Indian fighting for the independence of his country. He wrote the book during his imprisonment.

Other contributors –

Nehru attributes some of the content of the book to his fellow prisoners at Ahmednagar jail. He gives special mention to four of them namely Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Govind Ballabh Pant, Narendra Deva and Asaf Ali. All his fellow prisoners (eleven of them) were political prisoners from various parts of the country, having deep knowledge about the various aspects of India which the book discusses. They also participated in proofreading Nehru's work and providing him with creative suggestions.

Edition –

The book was first published from Signet Press at Calcutta (now Kolkata), India on March 1946. The book is presently published by the 'Jawaharlal Nehru Memorial Fund' and the copyright for the book is held by his grand daughter-in-law Sonia Gandhi.

The Discovery of India by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru,

The Discovery of India by Jawaharlal Nehru (paperback, thirteenth edition),

Adaptations –

The book became the basis of the 53-episode Indian television series Bharat Ek Khoj (1988), directed by Shyam Benegal, first broadcast in 1988 on state-run Doordarshan channel. A modified version of this book is taught as a Hindi supplement in 8th grade. 

Indian Art and Its Vibrant History

From early petroglyphs to a flourishing contemporary art scene, India's vibrant artistic legacy is the result of a variety of cultural influences. The diversity of art from this area—which includes anything created in the historical regions of modern-day India, Bangladesh, and areas of Pakistan and Afghanistan—is reflected in vivid, distinct, and enchanting styles that represent many different civilizations. Because some of the world's major religions such as Buddhism, Hinduism, and Islam either began or flourished in India, much of Indian art is based in religious or political subject matter. Here, we uncover the history of Indian folk paintings, architecture, and sculpture, and explain how each evolved from the sociopolitical influences reflective of the period from which they originated.

A Brief History of Indian Art -

Archaeologists discovered evidence of prehistoric rock art—carvings or drawings on cave rocks—in this area dating back at least 290,000 years. The oldest examples are the Bhimbetka petroglyphs found in central India. These consist of cupules, which are non-utilitarian hemispherical cup-shaped depressions that are hammered out of the rock surface. This type of rock art was the primary form of cave painting throughout the Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic periods, often depicting animal and human forms. The earliest known Indian art sculptures were produced by the Indus Valley Civilization between 2,500 B.C. and 1 ,800 B.C. They created small terracotta and bronze figures that also represented humans and animals such as cows and monkeys. In the 6th century B.C., the rise of Buddhism paved way for religious-themed art, often in the form of stone and bronze sculptures. During this time, religious artists also experimented with the creation of vast temples carved in stone and decorated with Greek-influenced columns.

Sculpture was a common practice among Indian Buddhists and Hindus. Hinduism continued to be a main focus of Indian art for centuries, as sculptures of deities like Shiva were commonly produced. By the 16th century, Islam gained importance under the Mughal Empire and art production grew under Islamic rulers. During this time, the arts prospered and in 1631 construction began on the Taj Mahal. British involvement in India began in the 18th century, during which time they established art schools to promote European styles. As a result, local art styles merged with foreign influences and traditional art forms were often romanticized or exaggerated to appeal to European buyers. In 1947, India gained independence from the British empire which pushed local artists to search for a new style. Contemporary Indian art incorporates traditional elements and influences from the rich history of the country.

Types of Indian Art –

Each region of India offered its own distinct style of art. Religious motifs are some of the most common subject matter, often featuring mythological human and animal forms as well as elaborate ornamentation. The three most prevalent art forms to span India's history are painting, architecture, and sculpture.

Paintings

Each style of painting that emerged in India represented traditions, customs, and ideologies passed down from previous generations. Though early paintings existed on walls or as murals, the art form was eventually transferred to more modern materials such as paper, canvas, cloth, and other mediums. Below are some of the most popular Indian folk art painting styles.

Madhubani Paintings

Some of the most popular paintings from India are Madhubani paintings. This style originated in the Mithila region of Bihar as a form of wall art, but wasn't widely known to the Western world until British civil servant and art historian W.G. Archer stumbled upon their brilliance in 1934 while inspecting damage from an earthquake near the border of India and Nepal.

The Madhubani style is represented by a simple and evocative portrayal of culture and tradition, typically depicting mythological scenes. Artists juxtapose vibrant imagery with pared-down patterns, often bearing floral, animal, or bird motifs. The art form is practiced in many different styles including Bharni, Katchni, Geru, Godna, and Tantric.

Miniature Paintings

These small works created mostly as illustrations for manuscripts were initially found on palm leaves, painted for merchants who carried them throughout their travels across the subcontinent in the 10th and 12th centuries. The art form became increasingly important throughout the Mughal and Rajput courts. Miniature paintings were highly detailed and intricate, drawing from Persian techniques. Themes ranged from religious and historical scenes to depictions of everyday life.

Pattachitra Paintings

Another early form of painting, this style dates back to the 12th century B.C. near Orissa, an eastern Indian state on the Bay of Bengal. The small villages within the area still produce this style of painting today. Pattachitra literally translates to "cloth picture," aptly describing this traditional, cloth-based type of scroll painting. Known for its intricate details and mythological narratives, the paintings call upon angular, bold lines and draw extensively from Mughal-era influences.

Warli Paintings

Warli folk paintings, a form of indigenous Indian art, date back 2,500 years. The style originated in Maharashtra, a state spanning the western part of Central India, where it is still widely practiced today. Typically created on the walls of huts, Warli paintings utilize linear and monochromatic hues and an elementary style of execution that resembles cave painting. Contrary to other types of tribal art, which feature an abundance of colors, this style utilizes earth-tones and neutral shades to depict daily activities of local people such as farming, dancing, and hunting.

 

World War 1

World War 1 or the First World War (28 July 1914 — 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War, was a global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers. Fighting took place mainly in Europe and the Middle East, as well as in parts of Africa and the Asia-Pacific, and in Europe was characterised by trench warfare; the widespread use of artillery, machine guns, and chemical weapons (gas); and the introductions of tanks and aircraft. World War I was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, resulting in an estimated 10 million military dead and more than 20 million wounded, plus some 10 million civilian dead from causes including genocide. The movement of large numbers of people was a major factor in the deadly Spanish flu pandemic.

The causes of World War I included the rise of Germany and decline of the Ottoman Empire, which disturbed the long-standing balance of power in Europe, and rising economic competition between nations driven by industrialisation and imperialism. Growing tensions between the great powers and in the Balkans reached a breaking point on 28 June 1914, when Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb, assassinated the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne. Austria-Hungary blamed Serbia, and declared war on 28 July. After Russia mobilised in Serbia's defence, Germany declared war on Russia and France, who had an alliance. The United Kingdom entered after Germany invaded Belgium, and the Ottomans joined the Central Powers in November. Germany's strategy in 1914 was to quickly defeat France then transfer its forces to the east, but its advance was halted in September, and by the end of the year the Western Front consisted of a near-continuous line of trenches from the English Channel to Switzerland. The Eastern Front was more dynamic, but neither side gained a decisive advantage, despite costly offensives. Italy, Bulgaria, Romania, Greece and others joined in from 1915 onward.

Major battles, including at Verdun, the Somme, and Passchendaele, failed to break the stalemate on the Western Front. In April 1917, the United States joined the Allies after Germany resumed unrestricted submarine warfare against Atlantic shipping. Later that year, the Bolsheviks seized power in Russia in the October Revolution; Soviet Russia signed an armistice with the Central Powers in December, followed by a separate peace in March 1918. That month, Germany launched a spring offensive in the west, which despite initial successes left the German Army exhausted and demoralised. The Allied Hundred Days Offensive beginning in August 1918 caused a collapse of the German front line. Following the Vardar Offensive, Bulgaria signed an armistice in late September. By early November, the Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary had each signed armistices with the Allies, leaving Germany isolated. Facing a revolution at home, Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated on 9 November, and the war ended with the Armistice of 11 November 1918.

The Paris Peace Conference of 1919—1920 imposed settlements on the defeated powers, most notably the Treaty of Versailles, by which Germany lost significant territories, was disarmed, and was required to pay large war reparations to the Allies. The dissolution of the Russian, German, Austro-Hungarian, and Ottoman Empires redrew national boundaries and resulted in the creation of new independent states, including Poland, Finland, the Baltic states, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia. The League of Nations was established to maintain world peace, but its failure to manage instability during the interwar period contributed to the outbreak of World War II in 1939.

Before World War II, the events of 1914—1918 were generally known as the Great War or simply the World War 1. In August 1914, the magazine The Independent wrote "This is the Great War. It names itself." In October 1914, the Canadian magazine Maclean's similarly wrote, "Some wars name themselves. This is the Great War. Contemporary Europeans also referred to it as "the war to end war" and it was also described as "the war to end all wars" due to their perception of its unparalleled scale, devastation, and loss of life. The first recorded use of the term First World War was in September 1914 by German biologist and philosopher Ernst Haeckel who stated, "There is no doubt that the course and character of the feared 'European War' ... will become the first world war in the full sense of the word. 

 

Seas Around the Globe

What Are the 7 Seas Around the Globe ?

Andaman Sea –

Area: 308,000 sq. mi, 797,700 sq. km Average Depth: 2,854 ft., 870 m. Greatest Known Depth: Off Car Nicobar Island - 12,392 ft., 3,777 m.

The Andaman Sea is known as a marginal sea, meaning a body of water that is contained within or bounded by an ocean. It is found in the northeastern portion of the Indian Ocean, between the Andaman Islands and the west coast of Myanmar and Malaysia. The Andaman seabed is at the boundary of two tectonic plates and therefore experiences regular tectonic activity.

Its habitat is dominated by seagrass meadows and mangrove forests which provide shelter to many endangered species, including multiple species of sea turtle. The habitats also make it a bountiful area for fishing with Thailand deriving 19% of its yearly harvests from the Andaman. The other major economic use is tourism, with the Nicobar Islands home to rich coral reefs, some of which are candidates for UNESCO World Heritage Site status.

Arabian Sea –

Area: 1,491,000 sq. mi, 3,862,000 sq. km Average Depth: 8,970 ft., 2,734m. Greatest Known Depth: Wheatley Point — 15,262 ft., 4,652 m.

The Arabian Sea sits in the northwest of the Indian Ocean, in a pocket below Pakistan and Oman and to the west of India. It is connected to both the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea, providing a bridge between the Arabian Peninsula and the ocean at large. In ancient times, the Greeks referred to the area as the Erythraean Sea.

Due to its proximity to major oil exporting nations and the Suez Canal, the Arabian Sea is part of the busiest shipping lanes in the world and the busiest ports like Salalah in Oman. Major cities on the coast include Mumbai, Muscat, Abu Dhabi, and Dubai. The tiny island of Zalzala Koh was formed in 2013 after an earthquake but had entirely submerged beneath the sea by 2016.

Aral Sea –

Area: 6,626 sq. mi, 17,160 sq. km Average Depth: 29 ft., 8.7 m. Greatest Known Depth: Exact location unknown — 138 ft., 42 m.

The Aral Sea is an entirely landlocked body of water and used to be the fourth-largest lake in the world. It is split in two by the border between Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, with a drainage basin that encompasses Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Afghanistan. It has become one of the most renowned examples of environmental degradation after its surface area reduced from 68,000 km2 in 1960, to what remains today as two much smaller separate lakes: the North and South Aral Seas.

Soviet infrastructure projects in the mid-20th century diverted the major tributaries away from the Aral, leading to a reduction to 10% of its original size. At its lowest point, the Aral was made up of just two relatively small lakes, with the southeastern portion redesignated as the Aralkum Desert. Since 2014, there has been evidence to show that replenishment of the lake's volume is working, with rising volume levels in the North Aral and the center.

The Sea naturally has low levels of biodiversity but still a large number of unique, endemic species, many of which were lost when the Sea receded. However, rising water levels have reduced the salinity of the Aral Sea, which has paved the way for a recovery in native fish species.

Baltic Sea –

Area: 163,000 sq. mi, 422,200 sq. km Average Depth: 180 ft., 55 m. Greatest Known Depth: Landsort Deep — 1,380 ft., 421 m.

As one of the most enclosed seas that are still openly connected to the world ocean, the Baltic is vitally important to a variety of its surrounding countries. It is bound by Denmark, Germany, Poland, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Russia, Finland, and Sweden. Historically, Denmark served as the geographical and literal gatekeeper of the Baltic Sea due to the narrow entrance channels upon which its islands are situated. Up until 1857, Denmark charged a toll for any ships passing through the channels to enter the Baltic which amounted to a third of the country's yearly income.

The Baltic remains a major feature of European geopolitics. The Nord Stream gas pipeline from Russia runs beneath the sea and is a political leverage point over Western Europe. A second pipeline has been built along the same route, but the war in Ukraine and the resulting worsening of international relations have halted the project. The Baltic would also become crucial to any larger-scale military operations as major seaports for Russia, Germany, and Scandinavia lie on its shores.

Bering Sea and Strait –

Area: 884,900 sq. mi, 2,291,900 sq. km Average Depth: 5,075 ft., 1,547 m. Greatest Known Depth: Bower's Basin — 15,659 ft., 4,773 m.

The Bering Sea and Strait separate Russia from the USA and more expansively, Eurasia from North America. During the most recent ice age, scientists believe that sea levels were low enough in the Bering Strait for a land bridge to form. Humans and other large mammals would have migrated from Eurasia to North America across the dried strait.

Home to the largest submarine canyon in the world, the Zemchug Canyon, the Bering Strait has a vibrant ecosystem thanks to favorable currents and nutrient upwelling. Fish biodiversity is high and this supports a large number of seabird species that rely on the Bering for fertile breeding grounds. It also provides both Russia and the USA with valuable fisheries, worth $600 billion and $1 billion respectively.

The sea is named after Vitus Bering, a Danish explorer who became the first to explore the area by sailing from the North Pacific Ocean to the Arctic. Geopolitically, the Bering is important because it presents the smallest distance between Russia and the USA and a point of possible conflict over fishing rights.

Black Sea –

Area: 168,500 sq. mi, 436,402 sq. km Average Depth: 4,111 ft., 1,253 m. Greatest Known Depth: Euxine Abyssal Plain — 7,257 ft., 2,212 m.

The Black Sea sits in the middle of various geographic zones, with Europe to the north and west, the Caucasus in the east, and Turkey in the south. Historically, the Black Sea was central to the wealth of the Hanseatic League, a prosperous medieval economic alliance. Today, the Black Sea remains important for geopolitical reasons. Russia has tried to increase its control over the area recently and headquarters its Black Sea Fleet in Sevastopol after it annexed Crimea from Ukraine in 2014. During Russia's invasion of Ukraine in 2022, the Black Sea was a key route of attack and the Russians used their fleet to blockade grain exports from Ukraine.

It is the largest expanse of brackish water in the world which supports a unique ecosystem of animals that thrive in these specific conditions. The large number of rivers that drain into the Black Sea also deposit high volumes of nutrient-rich sediment to support good levels of phytoplankton. Rapid industrial expansion throughout the 20th century saw increased levels of pollution which negatively affected the ecology of the Black Sea, although regulation brought in over the millennium has allowed the ecosystem to recover.

Caribbean Sea –

Area: 1,063,000 sq. mi, 2,754,000 sq.km Average Depth: 7,217 ft., 2,200m. Greatest Known Depth: Puerto Rico Trench - 25,217 ft., 7,686 m.

The Caribbean Sea is defined by a series of Caribbean islands to the north and east, Central America to the west, and South America to the south. The average climate is tropical and hurricanes are common in a season that stretches from June to November. Trade wins create a northerly current and a consequential upwelling of nutrients near the Yucatan, leading to bountiful fish stocks. However, the main economic function of the Caribbean is tourism. The warm waters, coral reefs, and sandy beaches mean it is an attractive destination.

Christopher Columbus was the first European to explore the Caribbean and founded colonies in modern-day Haiti/Dominican Republic. Further exploration in the 18th and 19^th centuries led to a developing level of scientific interest. The area is home to 9% of the world's coral reefs which are vital to both environmental diversity and the area's attraction to tourists. However, up to 95% of the reefs have experienced some form of coral bleaching due to rising temperatures in the Caribbean. The modern-day Caribbean presents a paradox for local countries: while the ecosystem attracts human activity that is crucial to the economy, it also acts as the main source of environmental degradation. 

World Geography ( The Lines on a map )

 

In this blog I am going to give you information about World Geography and The Lines on a Map

The Lines on a Map

You can't see them, but they're there. Points and lines on a map define not only where you are, but also when you're there. Navigators still rely on these imaginary lines to get where they are going. You can use them, too.

The Antarctic Circle

The Antarctic Circle lies three-quarters of the way between the equator and the South Pole.

The Arctic Circle

Three-quarters of the way between the equator and the North Pole lies the Arctic Circle. Above this line is the Arctic region, where nights last for 24 hours in the middle of winter. It is known as the Land of the Midnight Sun because in summer the sun never sets.

DEW Line

The DEW (distant early warning) line is a 3,000-mile line of radar stations north of the Arctic Circle. It should notify the U.S. and Canada of the approach of enemy planes or missiles.

The Equator

This imaginary circle goes around the middle of the earth for 24,902 miles. It divides the Northern Hemisphere from the Southern Hemisphere and is exactly half way between the North and South Poles.

The International Date Line

An imaginary line where the date changes one day when passed. It is one day earlier east of the line than it is on the west.

Meridians

Imaginary lines that run north and south on a map from pole to pole. Meridians express degrees of longitude, or how far a place is away from the prime meridian. The prime meridian runs through Greenwich, England. Longitude is used together with latitude to form a grid on which it is possible to locate any place on the earth.

Parallels

Imaginary lines that run east and west on a map. Parallels represent degrees of latitude, or how far a place is away from the equator. The equator's latitude is and the poles are  south and north. One degree of latitude equals about 69 miles.

The Tropic of Cancer

A parallel line of latitude that is a quarter of the way from the equator to the North Pole. During the summer solstice, the sun is directly overhead.

The Tropic of Capricorn

This line of latitude is a quarter of the way from the equator to the South Pole. During the winter solstice, the sun is directly overhead.

The Hemispheres

The equator divides the earth into two halves, or hemispheres. The Northern Hemisphere is the half of the earth between the North Pole and the equator. The Southern Hemisphere is the half of the earth between the South Pole and the equator. The earth can also be broken up another way: into the Eastern Hemisphere and the Western Hemisphere. The Western Hemisphere includes North and South America, their islands, and the surrounding waters. The Eastern Hemisphere includes Asia, Africa, Australia, and Europe.

Battles of Babur

In this blog I am going to give you information about Battles of Babur.

Beginning with the Battle of Panipat in 1526, Babur fought several battles, which paved the way for the establishment of the Mughal Empire in India.

First Battle of Panipat (1526)

In Panipat, near Delhi, a war occurred between Babur and the ruler of Delhi, Ibrahim Lodi.

Babur was a master strategist and battle-hardened. He used gunpowder in artillery to his great advantage.

He strengthened his position by resting one wing of his army in the houses of the city of Panipat and protecting the other with a ditch filled with tree branches and a defending wall.

He created the Ottoman (Rumi) device, a combination of defence and attack positions. Moreover, Babur had two Ottoman master gunners, Ustad Ali and Mustafa, in his ranks to operate the artillery attacks.

At the same time, Ibrahim Lodi was unaware of Babur's war strategy and his vigorously defended position.

After a week of war, the two extreme wings of Babur's army attacked Ibrahim's forces from the side and rear. Babur's gunners used their guns with good effect from the front.

Lodi was caught in between and was attacked from all sides by Babur. Babur gives a massive credit to his bowmen for the victory.

Battle of Khanwa (1527)

It was a battle in which the Mughal Emperor Babur defeated a confederacy of Rajputs and Afghans headed by Rana Sanga of Mewar.

Babur's decision to stay in India provoked Rana Sanga's hostility, and he began preparing for a showdown with Babur. Rana Sanga had domination over Eastern Rajasthan, Malwa.

Thus, Babur's establishment of an empire in the Indo-Gangetic Valley was a threat to Rana Sangha.

Babur accused him of breaching the agreement. He says that Sanga had invited him to India and promised to join him against Ibrahim Lodi but made no such move.

It is not known what precise promises Rana Sanga had made. However, Babur's decision to stay in India completely changed the situation.

Battle of Chanderi (1528)

After the battle of Khanwa, the power of the Rajputs was only crippled but not crushed.

To further consolidate the gains and strengthen his position, Babur conquered a chain of forts-Gwalior and Dholpur, towards the east of Agra.

He also annexed a large part of Alwar from Hasan Khan Mewati. When Babur received news that Rana Sanga had renewed war preparations to renew the conflict with him, he decided to isolate Rana by inflicting a military defeat on one of his staunchest allies, Medini Rai of Chanderi in Malwa.

Chanderi was a stronghold of the Rajputs. The Rajputs decided to fight until the end, and it was captured after the Rajput defenders had died fighting to the last man, and their women burned themselves by performing Jauhar.

After the battle of Chanderi, Babur's authority was not challenged by the Rajputs.

Battle of Ghaghra (1529)

It was fought between the forces of Babur, the Eastern Afghan Confederates under Sultan Mahmud Lodi, and the Sultanate of Bengal under Sultan Nusrat Shah.

Although the Afghans had been defeated, they needed to be reconciled to the Mughal Rule, especially in Eastern UP.

They had ousted the Mughal officials in Eastern UP and reached Kannauj. The Afghan Sardars were backed by Nusrat Shah, the ruler of Bengal, who had married a daughter of Ibrahim Lodi.

However, they needed a popular leader. After some time, Mahmud Lodi, brother of Ibrahim Lodi, who had fought against Babur at Khanwa, reached Bihar.

The Afghans hailed him as their leader and mustered strong support under him.

This was a threat Babur could not ignore. After crossing the Ganga near Banaras, he faced the combined forces of the Afghans and Nusrat Shah of Bengal at the crossing of the Ghaghra River.

Although Babur crossed the river and compelled the combined forces of Bengal and Afghan armies to retreat, he could not win a decisive victory. Being ill and anxious about the situation in Central Asia, Babur decided to patch up an agreement with the Afghan Chiefs.

He also patched up a treaty with Nusrat Shah of Bengal. The Battle of Ghaghra was important because it finished the challenge of the last of the Lodis.

 

Indian Economy

 

Economy of India –

The economy of India is a developing mixed economy with a notable public sector in strategic sectors. It is the world's fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP and the third-largest by purchasing power parity (PPP); on a per capita income basis, India ranked 136th by GDP (nominal) and 119th by GDP (PPP). From independence in 1947 until 1991 , successive governments followed the Soviet model and promoted protectionist economic policies, with extensive Sovietization, state intervention, demand-side economics, natural resources, bureaucrat-driven enterprises and economic regulation. This is characterised as dirigism, in the form of the Licence Raj. The end of the Cold War and an acute balance of payments crisis in 1991 led to the adoption of a India broad economic liberalisation in India and indicative planning. India has about 1,900 public sector companies, with the Indian state having complete control and ownership of railways and highways. The Indian government has major control over banking, insurance, farming, fertilizers and chemicals, airports, essential utilities. The state also exerts substantial control over digitalization, telecommunication, supercomputing, space, port and shipping industries, which were effectively nationalised in the mid-1950s but has seen the emergence of key corporate players.

Nearly 70% of India's GDP is driven by domestic consumption; the country remains the world's fourth-largest consumer market. Aside private consumption, India's GDP is also fueled by government spending, investments, and exports. In 2022, India was the world's 10th-largest importer and the 8th-largest exporter. India has been a member of the World Trade Organization since 1 January 1995. It ranks 63rd on the ease of doing business index and 40th on the Global Competitiveness Index. India has one of the world's highest number of billionaires along with extreme income inequality. Economists and social scientists often consider India a welfare state. India's overall social welfare spending stood at 8.6% of GDP in 2021-22, which is much lower than the average for OECD nations. With 586 million workers, the Indian labour force is the nations. world's second-largest. Despite having one of the longest working hours, India has one of the lowest workforce productivity levels in the world. Economists say that due to structural economic problems, India is experiencing jobless economic growth.

During the Great Recession, the economy faced a mild slowdown. India endorsed Keynesian policy and initiated stimulus measures (both fiscal and monetary) to boost growth and generate demand. In subsequent years, economic growth revived.

In 2021—22, the foreign direct investment (FDI) in India was $82 billion. The leading sectors for FDI inflows were the Finance, Banking, Insurance and R&D. India has free trade agreements with several nations and blocs, including ASEAN, SAFTA, Mercosur, South Korea, Japan, Australia, the United Arab Emirates, and several others which are in effect or under negotiating stage.

The service sector makes up more than 50% of GDP and remains the fastest growing sector, while the industrial sector and the agricultural sector employs a majority of the labor force. The Bombay Stock Exchange and National Stock Exchange are some of the world's largest stock exchanges by market capitalisation. India is the world's sixth-largest manufacturer, representing 2.6% of global manufacturing output. Nearly 65% of India's population is rural, and contributes about 50% of India's GDP. India faces high unemployment, rising income inequality, and a drop in aggregate demand. India's gross domestic savings rate stood at 29.3% of GDP in 2022.

OPERATION SINDOOR

OPERATION SINDOOR AND THE EVOLUTION OF INDIA'S MILITARY STRATEGY AGAINST PAKISTAN

Once more unto the breach, India struck inside Pakistan in response to a terrorist attack. Once more, the two sides escalated again to unprecedented levels before agreeing to a ceasefire. It is tempting to consider this latest crisis as a somewhat larger replay of the last Indo-Pakistani crisis in 2019, but in fact it signifies a notable shift in India's military strategy towards Pakistan, which has potentially grave implications for future crises. The latest crisis was triggered by a terrorist attack at Pahalgam on April 22, which was especially provocative and likely calculated to be so by targeting specifically Hindu men for point-blank execution. Tensions rose immediately, with consistent exchanges of small-arms fire across the Line of Control that separates Indian- and Pakistani-controlled parts of Kashmir. Then, soon after midnight on May 7, India launched its military response, dubbed Operation Sindoor. It used a mix of long-range stand-off weapons, including air-launched missiles and loitering munitions, to target nine sites belonging to terrorist groups Lashkar-e-Taiba and Jaish-e-Muhammad, groups that have frequently attacked India, including at Pahalgam.

Pakistan made still-debated claims to have shot down Indian aircraft, and launched reprisal drone and missile attacks. The two sides traded tit-for-tat rounds of stand-off weapon attacks against each other's military installations. The violence intensified on May 9 and 10, with effective Indian strikes against key Pakistan Air Force bases and Pakistan launching its own counter-offensive, Qperation Bunyan Marsoos, which was largely thwarted. That uptick drew the concerned diplomatic intervention of the United States before the two belligerents agreed to ceasefire on the afternoon of May 10. Despite some minor violations, the ceasefire seems to be holding, and the crisis seems now to have concluded. For India, this crisis represents an important evolution in its military strategy against Pakistan shifting from the issuance of threats to change Pakistani behavior, to the direct imposition of costs to degrade terrorists' capacity. This new cost-imposition strategy has a compelling logic, but will be diffcult and risky to execute in future crises.

From Uri to Balakot to Sindoor

Over the past decade, India has progressively transformed its response to Pakistan's campaign of terrorism. Its actions have grown in scale, using new technologies, triggering larger cycles of violence, and seeking more expansive effects.

For years, despite grave provocations such as the 2001 attack on the Indian parliament, the 26/11 attacks In Mumbai, and even multiple smaller attacks during Prime Minister Modi's first term in offce, India resisted responding militarily to terrorist attacks. That pattern of inaction began to change in 2016, when in response to an attack at Uri, Indian special forces raided terrorist camps just across the Line of Control. At the next crisis, India's response was notably more aggressive. In 2019, in response to an attack at Pulwama, India launched an air strike targeting a terrorist site at Balakot. As I wrote in these pages, the Balakot air strike sought to deter Pakistan by crossing multiple new thresholds India used airpower against Pakistan for the first time since 1971, and reached into undisputed Pakistani territory beyond Kashmir and by deliberately generating risk to intimidate Pakistan. That strike despite its dubious tactical effects validated for Indian decision-makers the notion that they could use military force to punish Pakistan without triggering a war or nuclear retaliation.

Operation Sindoor took that evolution further. India struck a larger set of initial targets, with more force, and more types of weapons, including cruise missiles and loitering munitions. Whereas in Balakot the use of air power was a radical departure, in Operation Sindoor, air- and ground-launched stand-off weapons had become India's primary tool. India already boasted some such capabilities, for example, with its indigenously-produced BrahMos cruise missiles, and Israeli-made Spice bomb kits and Harop loitering munitions. But it made a concerted effort to grow these capabilities since Balakot, most prominently with the procurement of French-made Rafale fighters carrying Scalp air-launched cruise missiles. Its layered, integrated air defenses including the S-400 surface-to-air missiles that it imported from Russia, to Washington's great consternation also proved to be exceptionally effective.

All of these capabilities gave India military options short of starting a war. Over the past decade, India has been able to attack Pakistan repeatedly without mobilizing its large ground formations. The vexed debates over the Army's erstwhile "Cold Start" doctrine and its perpetually delayed Integrated Battle Groups have now become obsolete. India's lumbering ground forces, mobilized with great diffculty and cost after the 2001 attack, gave New Delhi an invidious all-or-nothing choice to either remain passive or start a war. And if committed to an offensive, they could not be easily dialed back, making crisis resolution or war termination more diffcult. In contrast, missiles and drones are quicker to launch and easier to calibrate as Operation Sindoor showed, successive waves of sorties can be ratcheted up or down, giving national leaders flexibility to escalate or de-escalate as required. For all these reasons, stand-off weapons, delivered from multiple domains, have emerged as India's weapons of choice.

Also extending the evolution of recent crises, Operation Sindoor triggered a conspicuously larger cycle of tit-for-tat counterattacks. Consistent with its previous strikes, India had immediately declared that its operation was measured and restrained. Contrary to some of the more inflammatory demands for action, including from Indian parliamentarians, New Delhi was adamant it was only seeking justice against terrorists, and had no intent to attack the Pakistani military. The onus of prolonging or escalating the crisis, it held, would lie squarely with Pakistan. But unlike the previous Uri and Balakot crises, when Pakistan could plausibly deny any losses and suppress the need to retaliate heavily, this time India immediately released video evidence of effective strikes, and Pakistan immediately admitted to casualties. Pakistan had irresistible incentives to hit back, harder than it had after Balakot. It could not allow India to strike its territory with impunity. So, entirely predictably, the crisis quickly crossed the threshold into a military confrontation, lasting four days and involving orders of magnitude more weapons and targets on both sides than previously.

The most strategically significant evolution of India's actions, from Uri to Balakot to Sindoor, is the nature of the effects that India attempted to create at each iteration. In each case, it tested and pushed the boundaries of what it could do without triggering a war, and what it could achieve. The post-Uri raid was designed only as a symbol of India's new willingness to introduce military action after years of inaction. The Balakot air strike was designed to demonstrate Indian capabilities to strike deep into Pakistan, and its willingness to cross previously sacrosanct thresholds. As an Indian journalist presciently observed at the time, "If it is Balakot today, it could be Bahawalpur or Muridke tomorrow," referring to terrorist groups' headquarters. And, indeed, with Operation Sindoor, India did strike exactly those sites, among others, in a larger retaliation designed to inflict real material damage to the groups.

The evolution of India's military responses was crystallized by Modi in a victory speech he delivered on May 12. He pronounced that henceforth India would by default respond militarily to terrorism, that Pakistan's nuclear threats would not deter India, and that India would consider both terrorists and their military backers to be equivalent. All of these positions are a stark departure from Indian practice a decade ago. After successive evolutionary iterations, India implemented this doctrine in Operation Sindoor, and Modi proclaimed that this would be "a new benchmark in India's fight against terrorism" and a "new normal."